FOOD PRODUCTION BOOK

 

 FOOD PRODUCTION BOOK

NOTES FOR 3^RD YEAR STUDENT IN BHM OR B.Sc. (HHA)

Sunil Kumar

Project Fellow

Institute of Hotel and Tourism Management,

MAHARSHI DAYANAND UNIVERSITY, ROHTAK

Haryana- 124001 Ph. No. 09996000499

email: skihm86@yahoo.com  

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webpage: chefsunilkumar.tripod.com

INDEX

S.No.	Chapter	Page No.
	A CULINARY HISTORY
	SEASONING AND FLAVORING
	FOOD PRESENTATION
	FOOD SAFETY AND SANITATION
	LE GARDE MANGER – An Introduction
	Hors d’oeuvre and Appetizers
	SANDWICHES
	SALADS AND SALAD DRESSINGS
	NON-EDIBLE DISPLAYS
	INTRODUCTION TO CHARCUTERIE
	Forcemeats
	PATE AND TERRINE
	CHAPTER 13 FOIE GRAS AND TRUFFLE
	CHAPTER 14 SAUSAGES
	CHAPTER 15 GALANTINE, BALLOTINE, ROULADE AND PARFAIT
	CHAPTER 16 MOUSSE AND MOUSSELINE
	CHAPTER 17 ASPIC AND GELEE
	CHAPTER 18 CHAUD FROID
	CHAPTER 19 MARINADES, CURES AND BRINES
	CHAPTER 20 HISTORY OF BREAD
	CHAPTER 21 BREAD
	CHAPTER 22 BREAD FAULTS
	CHAPTER 23 BREAD IMPROEVRS
	CHAPTER 24 FROZEN DESSERTS
	CHAPTER 25 CAKE MIXING AND BAKING
	CHAPTER 26 PASTRY
	CHAPTER 27 COOKIES AND  BISCUITS
	CHAPTER 28 BAKERY TERMS
	CHAPTER 29 BAKERY Q & A
	CHAPTER 30 GLOSSARY OF  CULINARY TERMS
	CHAPTER 31 HISTORICAL & CLASSICAL GARNISHES
	CHAPTER 32 INTRODUCTION TO CHINESE COOKING
	CHAPTER 33 THE COOKING OF PROVENCIAL FRANCE
	CHAPTER 34 THE COOKING OF ITALY
	CHAPTER 35 THE COOKING OF GREAT BRITIAN
	CHAPTER 36 THE COOKING OF SPAIN AND PORTUGAL
	CHAPTER 37 THE COOKING OF MEXICO
	CHAPTER 38 THE COOKING OF AMERICA
	CHAPTER 39 FOOD COST CONTROL
	CHAPTER 40 F& B STANDARDS
	CHAPTER 41 YIELD
	THIRD YEAR SYLLABUS

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER 01:  A CULINARY HISTORY

 

 

Like any fine art, great cookery requires taste and creativity, an appreciation of beauty and a mastery of technique. Ike the sciences, successful cookery demands knowledge and an understanding of the basic principles and like any successful leader, today’s professional chefs must exercise sound judgment and be committed to achieving excellence in their endeavors.

 

Chefs and Restaurants

 

Cooks/Chefs have produced food in quantity for as long as people have eaten together. For millennia, chefs have catered to the often-elaborate dining needs of the wealthy and the powerful. But the history of the professional chef is fairly recent. Its cast is mostly French, and it is intertwined with the history of restaurants – for only with the development of the restaurants during the late 18thC and the early 19^th C were chef’s expected to produce, efficiently and economically, different dishes at different times for different diners.

The 18^th Century – Boulanger’s Restaurants

The word restaurant is derived from the French word restaurer (to restore). Since the 16^th Century, the word restorative has been used to describe rich and highly flavored soups or stews capable of restoring lost strength during recuperation from illness. Restoratives, like all other cooked foods offered and purchased from outside the house, were made by guild members. Each guild had the monopoly of preparing certain types of food items. For example, during the reign of Henri IV (1533-1610), there were separate guilds for rotisseurs (who spit roasted large joints of meat), patisiers (who cooked pies and tarts, often made with poultry), tamisiers (who baked breads), vinaigriers (who made sauces and some stews) and porte-chapes (caterers who organized feasts and celebrations.

The French claim that the world’s first modern restaurant was opened in 1765, when a Parisian tavern keeper, a Monsieur Boulanger, hung a sign advertising the sale of a special restorative, a dish of sheep’s feet in a white sauce. His establishment closed a short while later because of a lawsuit brought by a guild, whose members claimed that Boulanger was infringing on their exclusive rights to sell prepared dishes. Boulanger won in court and later reopened.

Boulanger’s establishment differed from the numerous inns and taverns that existed across Europe for centuries. These inns and taverns served foods prepared off premises by the various guilds. The choice was very limited. The food was an add-on to the basic service of sleeping accommodation and drink. Customers were served family style and eat at communal tables. Boulanger’s contribution was to serve a variety of foods prepared on premises to customers whose primary interest was dining.

Several other restaurants opened in Paris during the succeeding decades, including the Grande Taverne de Londres in 1782. Its owner, Antoine Beauvilliers (1754-1817) was the former steward to the Comte de Provence, later, King Louis VIII of France. He advanced the development of the modern restaurant by offering his wealthy patrons a menu listing available dishes during fixed hours.

The French Revolution (1789-1799) had a significant effect on the budding restaurant industry. Along with the aristocracy, the guilds and their monopolies were abolished. The revolution also allowed public access to the skills and creativity of the well trained and sophisticated chefs who had worked in the private kitchens of the aristocracy. Although many of the  aristocracy’s chefs either left the country or lost their jobs (and some even their heads!!!), a few enterprising ones open restaurants catering to the growing urbanized middle class in the new Republic

 

 

The Early 19^th Century – Carême and Grande Cuisine

 

As the 19^th Century progressed, more restaurants opened, serving a greater selection of items and catering to a wider clientele. By mid century, several large grand restaurants in Paris were serving elaborate meals reminiscent of the grande cuisine or haute cuisine of the aristocracy. Grande Cuisine reached its peak at the hands of Antonin Carême, whose meals were characterized by several courses, each intricately prepared, presented and garnished. Other restaurateurs blended the techniques and styles of grande cuisine with the simpler foods and tastes of the middle classes (cuisine bourgeoisie) to create a new cuisine, simpler than grande cuisine but more than mere home cooking.

The Late 19^th Century – Escoffier and Cuisine Classique

Following the lead set by the French in both culinary style and the restaurant business, restaurants opened throught Europe and indeed across the world as well. During the 19^th century, Charles Ranhofer opened the first American restaurant in New York – Delmonico’s. One of the finest restaurants outside France was at the Savoy Hotel in London opened by Cesar Ritz in 1898. The chef was the renowned Auguste Escoffier. Escoffier was generally credited with the refining of Grande Cuisine established by Carême, to create cuisine classique or classical cuisine. By doing so, he brought French cuisine to the world and to the 20^th century.

The Mid -20^th entury – Point and Nouvelle Cuisine

The mid 20^th century witnessed a trend towards lighter and more simply prepared foods. Fernand Point was a master practitioner of this movement. But this master’s goal of simplicity was carried to even greater lengths by chefs that he had trained, mainly, Paul Bocuse, Jean and Pierre Troisgros, Alain Chapel, François Bise and Louis Outhier. They along with Michel Guérard and Roger Verge were the pioneers of Nouvelle cuisine in the early 1970’s. Their culinary philosophy was based on the rejection of overly rich, needlessly complicated dishes. These chefs emphasized healthy eating. The ingredients must be fresh and of the highest possible quality, the cooking methods must be simple. The accompaniments must be light and contribute of overall harmony; the completed plates must be elegantly designed and decorated. Following these guidelines, some traditional cooking methods have been applied to nontraditional ingredients, and ingredients have been combined in new and previously unorthodox fashions. For chefs with knowledge, skill, taste and judgment, this works.

MARIE – ANTOIN (ANTONIN) CARẾME

 

CAREME was known as the King of Cooks and the Cook of Kings. He was the acknowledged master of French Grande Cuisine. Abandoned on the streets of Paris as a child, he worked his way from a cook’s helper in a working class restaurant to become one of the most prestigious chefs of his time. During his career, he was chef to the famous diplomat and gourmand, Prince de Talleyrand, the prince regent of England, who later became King George IV; Czar Alexander I of Russia and Baron Rothschild, among others.

His stated goal was to achieve lightness, grace, and order in the preparation and presentation of food. As a patissier, he designed elegant and elaborate pastry and confectionary items, many of which were based on architectural designs. As a showman, he garnished his dishes with ornamental skewers (hatelets) threaded with colorful ingredients such as crayfish and intricately carved vegetables, and presented his creations on elaborate bases (soccles). As a saucier, he standardized the use of roux as a thickening agent, perfected recipes and devised a system for classifying sauces. As a garde-manger, Carême popularized cold cuisine, emphasizing moulds and aspic dishes.

As a culinary professional, Carême designed kitchen tool, equipment and uniforms. As an author, he wrote and illustrated many texts on the culinary arts, including Le Maitre d’hôtel Francais (1822), describing the hundred of dishes. He created and presented in the various capitals of Europe; La Patissier royale parisienne (1825), describing elaborate and fanciful designs for les pieces montées (centerpieces), that were the crowning glory of grand dinners; and his five volume masterpiece on the state of his profession. L’art de la cuisine au XIXe siecie (1833), the last two volumes of which were completed after his death by his protégé  and associate Plummerey. His treatises were not mere cookbooks. Rather, he analyzed cooking, both old and new, emphasizing procedure and order and covering every aspect of the art of le Grande Cuisine.

Carême died before age 50, burnt out, according to Laurent Tailhade, by the flame of his genius and the coal of the spits. But this must have been the glory he sought, for he once wrote ‘the shorter the life, the greater the glory’

 

 

 

AUGUSTE ESCOFFIER (1846-1935)

 

Escoffier’s brilliant career began at the age of 13 in his uncle’s restaurant and continued until his death at 89. Called the ‘emperor of the worlds kitchens’, he is perhaps best known for defining French cuisine and dining.

Unlike Carême, Escoffier never worked in an aristocratic household. Rather, he exhibited his culinary skill in the dining rooms of the finest hotels in Europe including the Place Vendome in Paris and the Savoy &Carlton hotels in London.

Escoffier did much to enhance the grande cuisine that arguably reached its perfection under Carême. Crediting Carême with providing the foundation, Escoffier simplified the profusion of flavors, dishes and garnishes that typified Carême’s work. He also streamlined some of Carême’s overly elaborate and fussy procedures and classifications. For example, he reduced Caême’s elaborate system to classify sauces into the five mother sauces that is still recognized today. Escoffier sought simplicity and aimed for the perfect balance of a few superb ingredients. Some consider his refinement of grande cuisine to have been so radical as to credit him with the development of a new cuisine referred to as cuisine classique (classic or classical cuisine)

His many writings include Le livres des menus (1912), in which, discussing the principles of a well-balanced meal, he analogizes a great dinner to a symphony with contrasting movements that should be appropriate to the occasion, the guests and the season. His book Ma Cuisine was published in 1934. However, his most important contribution is a culinary treatise intended for the professional chef and was entitled Le Grande Culinaire (1903). Still in use today, it is an outstanding collection of more than 5000 classic recipes and garnishes. In it, Escoffier emphasizes the mastery of techniques, the thorough understanding of cooking principles and the appreciation of ingredients – attributes he considers the building blocks professional chefs should use to create great dishes.

Escoffier was honored as a Chevalier of the French Legion of Honor in 1920 for his work in enhancing the reputation of French cuisine.

FERNAND POINT (1897-1955)

A massive man with a monumental personality, Point modernized and refined the classic cuisine of Escoffier. By doing so, he laid the foundations for Nouvelle Cuisine.

Point received his early training in some of the finest hotel-restaurant kitchens in Paris. In 1922, he and his family moved to Vienne, a city in the south-west of France near Lyon, and opened a restaurant. Two years later, his father left the restaurant to Fernand, who renamed it, La Pyramide. During the succeeding years, it became one of the culinary wonders of the world.

Point disdained dominating sauces and distracting accompaniments and garnishes. He believed that each dish should have one dominant ingredient, flavor or theme. Garnishes should be simple and must match like a tie to a suit. Procedure was of great importance. He devoted equal efforts to the frying of an egg and creating marjolaine (an almond and hazelnut sponge filled with chocolate and praline butter cream). His goal was to use the finest of raw ingredients and to produce perfect food that looked elegant and simple. But simplicity was not easy to achieve. As he once said, ‘a Bearnaise sauce is nothing but an egg yolk, a shallot, a little tarragon vinegar and some butter. But it takes years of practice to make it perfect’.

INFLUENCES ON MODERN FOOD SERVICE OPERATIONS

 

From Monsieur Boulanger’s humble establishment, great industry has grown the dramatic growth and diversification of the food service industry is due in part to the Industrial Revolution and the social and economic changes it wrought, including the introduction of new technologies, foods, concerns and customers.

New Technologies

Technology has always had a profound effect on cooking. For example, the development of clay and later metal vessels that could contain liquids and could whit stand and conduct heat offered prehistoric cooks the opportunity to stew, make soups and porridge, pickle and brine foods and control fermentation. But it was not until the rapid technological advances fostered by the Industrial Revolution that anything approaching the modern kitchen was possible.

One of the most important advancements was the introduction of the cast iron stove. Prior to the 19^th century, most cooking was done on spits and grills or in cauldrons and pots set on burning coal or wood. This did not lend itself to simultaneous cooking of different dishes or to items requiring constant care and attention. With the introduction of cast iron stoves during the 1800s (first wood, then coal and subsequently gas and finally electric by early 20^th century) cooks could now cook more comfortably and safely, and control the temperatures. They were also able to efficiently prepare and hold for later use or service a multitude of smaller amounts of items requiring different cooking methods or ingredients, a necessity at a restaurant simultaneously catering to different diners’ needs.

Also of great importance, was the development of food preservation and storage techniques? For thousands of years, food was preserved by sun drying, salting, smoking and pickling, sugar curing and fermentation. Although useful and effective, these methods destroy or distort the appearance and the flavor of most foods. By the early 19^th century, preserving techniques that had minimal effect on appearance and flavor began to emerge.  By 1800, the Frenchman François Appert successfully canned food items by subjecting food items stored in sterilized glass jars to very high heat. An early mechanical refrigerator was developed by the mid 1800s; soon reliable refrigerators, iceboxes and, later, freezers were available. During the 20^th century, freeze-drying, vacuum packing and irradiation became common preservation techniques.

While advancements were being made in preservation and storage techniques, developments in transportation technology were also underway. During the 19^th century, steam powered ships and railroads were able to bring foods quickly to the market from distant suppliers. During the 20^th century, temperature controlled cargo ships, trains, trucks and airplanes all were used as part of an integrated worldwide food transportation network. Combined with reliable and dependable food preservation and storage techniques, improved transportation networks have freed chefs from seasonal and geographical limitations in their choice of foods and have expanded the customers’ choices and culinary horizons.

Engineering advancements also have facilitated or even eliminated much routine kitchen work. Since the start of the Industrial revolution, chefs have come to rely increasingly on mechanical and motorized food processors, mixers and cutters as well as a wealth of sophisticated kitchen equipment such as high carbon stainless steel knife blades, infrared thermometers and induction cook tops.

New Foods

Modern food preservation, storage and transportation techniques have made both fresh and exotic foods regularly available to the chef and the consumer.

Advancement in agriculture such as the switch from organic to chemical fertilizers and the introduction of pesticides and drought or pest resistant strains has resulted in higher crop yield. This of course has recently led to serious and often heated debates as to the reliability and the safety of these types of food. Organically grown crops have made a comeback and are increasingly popular from the food safety point of view. Genetically Modified Foods (GMF) is also being experimented with and some of these are already available in the market (square watermelons!). Hybridised and genetically engineered foods have produced better crops, and, for better or for worse, fruits, vegetables and other crops like grain,  have a longer shelf life and are more amenable to mass production handling, storage and transportation methods.

Likewise, advancements in animal husbandry and aquaculture have led to a more reliable supply of leaner meat, poultry and fish. Moreover, foods found traditionally only in the wild (for example, game, wild rice and some kinds of mushrooms) are now being raised commercially and are routinely available.

Food processing and preservation techniques have also led to the development of pre packaged prepared convenience foods, some of which are actually quite good. After careful thought and testing, today’s chef can rely on some of these products. Doing so allows greater flexibility and more time to devote to other preparations.

New Concerns

Consumer concerns about nutrition and diet have fueled changes in the food service industry. Obviously, what we eat, affects our health. Adequate amounts of nutrients promote good health by preventing deficiencies; good nutrition also helps prevent chronic diseases. Chefs must provide their customers with nutritious foods. The public has long been concerned with food safety. Constant grading and inspection by the authorities will help improve standards. Concerns about nutrition and food safety have also resulted in renewed interest in organically grown food and with genetically modified food.

New Consumers

 

Demographic and social changes have contributed to the diversification of the food service industry by creating and identifying new consumer groups, each with their own desires and needs. By tailoring their menu, prices and décor accordingly, food service operators can cater to their consumers needs. Through travel and exposure to books, magazines, TV shows about food, consumers are becoming aware, better educated and sophisticated. Educated consumers provide a market for new foods and cuisines as well as an appreciation for a job well done. Although customers frequent a particular restaurant because of the chef or the owner is a celebrity, or the restaurant is riding high on a crest of fad or fashion, most consumers choose a restaurant – whether it is a fast food outlet or an elegant French restaurant- because it provides quality food at a price they are willing to pay. To remain successful, then, the restaurant must carefully balance its commitment to quality with marketplace realities.

SUNIL KUMAR

SIHM ROHTAK

 

CHAPTER 02: SEASONING AND FLAVORING

Eating is essential for life, yet the enjoyment of eating good food is dependent on good flavor. Humans have travelled the globe, often at great risk, in search o fine flavours and methods of preserving foods, seeking, primarily what we refer to as spices. In the thirteenth century, spices were so precious that they were accepted as currency along with gold. Little was known of the trade routes to India and the Middle East at this time. The search for spices and the spice route drove explorers like Columbus and Magellan to travel the seas and discover new continents.

Seasoning can be described as the enhancement of natural flavours that are present in food without drastic alteration to the basic flavour. Salt in its various forms is the basic seasoning agent. Two types of salt are available.

 

Rock salt is mined from deposits on land. This is very coarse in texture and is sold as table salt (with the addition of iodine) or as pickling salt (without iodine).

Sea salt is produced by the evaporation of seawater. Sea salt is an impure salt and can be refined. It contains natural amounts of iodine.

From these two salts is also derived soy and flavoured salts. Flavoured salts are refined salts that are combined with other flavourings such as garlic and celery. Seasoned salts with a mixture of herbs and spices are also available. These salts can be used in cooking and also work well in marinades. Soy in its various forms like paste and sauce come from the orient where it is derived from soy beans fermented in brine. Soy will add seasoning to food to which it is added but will also alter the colour because of its dark appearance.

MSG (mono sodium glutamate) is an example of secondary seasoning. It is the sodium salt of glutamic acid. This white powdery compound is produced naturally by both plants and animals. MSG, which is commonly used in the kitchen, is produced from an array of products such as seaweed, fish bones and wheat gluten. It is extracted through a process of fermentation and drying. It has only a slightly salty taste of its own. Its purpose is to bring out the natural flavours in the food to which it is added. Even though MSG is sodium, it contains only 1/3^rd the sodium of natural salt. It is very common in oriental cooking and if used properly, can reduce the need for salt.

Flavouring, as opposed to seasoning, is the addition of a new flavour to a food. This results in an alteration of the natural flavour of the food. The various types of flavouring agents can be categorized as herbs, spices, concentrated flavouring agents, wines/spirits, vinegar and marinades. Without flavours, there will be little distinction between one dish and the next. It is flavour in most cases that defines international cuisine. The chilli of Mexico, the tomato and basil of Italy, the fermented soy of the Orient the myriad of spices of India all provide strong and distinctive flavours. It will be extremely helpful for the modern chef to be acquainted with the various flavours that are associated with international cuisine. This familiarity along with a working knowledge of seasoning and flavouring principles will enable a chef to use flavours successfully in new and unexpected combinations.

It should be noted here that there are dominant flavours and undertones. The dominant flavours should be limited to one or two elements, such as the main ingredient and one other flavouring agent. Any additional flavour should be subtle, so as not to take away attention from the dominant flavour. A particular recipe may call for five or six spices. One or two of these should be dominant. The others should form a subtle undertone.

Spices

The term spice comes from Latin, which roughly translated means “fruits of the earth.”  Spices, as distinguished from herbs, are derived from various parts of the plant. The bark (cinnamon), buds (clove), the flower (saffron), the fruit (all spice), the root (ginger) and the seed (mustard) can all be used. Spices can be used whole or ground. The advantage of whole spices is that they have a longer shelf life compared to the ground version. Some spices contain antioxidant components, which slow down the removal of their essences it is also easier to remove whole spices from food when it is being served. Ground spices are in the powdered form. The advantage is that they are more easily incorporated and uniformly as well.

Herbs

The second category of flavouring agents incorporates herbs, which comes from Latin, meaning grass. Herbs are defined as the leaves and stems of soft stemmed non-woody plants. Herbs and their use can be traced back to ancient Egypt, Greece and China. It would seem that they were originally gathered for culinary purpose, but like spices, they also have medicinal properties. Herbs can be categorized as fresh, dried, pickled or frozen.

Fresh herbs as the term denotes are used fresh without alteration, freshly picked. This does not mean that the cook needs to pick them for them to be called fresh.  Like cut flowers, they are available packaged from the suppliers.

Dried herbs are the same as fresh herbs, except they have the water content removed, which concentrates the flavour.

Pickled herbs are fresh herbs that are stored in brine.

Either frozen herbs are directly frozen or they may be blanched before freezing. Those that are blanched have a longer shelf life. Freeze dried herbs are also available. These are fresh herbs, which have been freeze-dried, and then vacuum packed.

Fresh herbs are always preferred to dried herbs. The flavour seems to be more complex and complete. Dried herbs, which are not stale, deliver a more concentrated flavour. A rule of thumb is one teaspoon of fresh herbs is roughly equal to 3 teaspoons of fresh herbs. A frozen herb has a flavouring power similar to that of a fresh herb.

It should be noted that when working with cold foods, the product should sit for at least one hour in the refrigerator after the addition of either herbs or spices to allow for full release and combination of flavours. In the case of hot foods, flavouring can be added at the beginning, middle or at the end of the cooking time. Which is best, will be determined by the type of flavouring and the type of food. Most flavorings need heat and time for the release of their flavour. Fresh herbs take a very short time to release their flavour and therefore should ideally b added towards the end of the cooking time. Dried herbs can be added towards the middle of the cooking process.

Concentrated Flavoring Agents

Flavouring agents are concentrated in two ways. Extraction (oleoresins) or distillation (essential oils).

Oleoresins are extracts from herbs and spices that are usually subject to a vacuum. In the process, most of the solvent (alcohol) is removed. Essential Oil is stem distillation of the flavour and the aroma compounds in an herb or a spice. The disadvantage is that it lacks the flavour in the final oil. Some cooking oils such as olive oil and walnut oil can also be used as flavouring agents in salads, marinades and salsas.

Wines and Spirits

Wines and spirits have become a staple flavouring agent in almost all culinary repertories. There are two types of wines: Table wines and Fortified Wines.

Table wines are mainly produced from grapes but other fruit such as peaches and strawberries can also be used to make wine. Non-fruit items like rice and rhubarb are also known to produce good wine. Fortified wines are those, which have a spirit added to the wine, and include brandy, Port and Sherry and these are used extensively in the flavouring of Desserts.

Wines have unlimited uses in the kitchen. They contribute not only flavour to the dish but also acidic value, salt and sugar. The alcoholic content of wine contributes little to the flavour, yet is a major consideration for the stability of sauces and salad dressings. Wines need to be reduced before addition to a prepared product, particularly products containing egg and dairy products. Reduction of the wine reduces the acid content and evaporates the alcohol, leaving the flavour intact. The alcohol and acid in raw wine creates a natural heat, which can cause coagulation of the protein in egg.  Wine reductions are essential for soups and sauces, and can be used for braising, de glazing and sauteeing. Wines can contribute a great deal of flavour to marinades and salad dressings. In most cooking applications, it is not necessary to use the finest wine. Most often an inexpensive wine will do. A fine quality wine may be required for a delicate sauce or dessert.  The contribution of wines and spirits to sorbets, desserts and pastries is major.

Vinegars

Vinegar, technically, is a byproduct of the fermentation of wine. Vinegar comes from the French term meaning sour wine. Commercially distilled vinegar contains 5% acetic acid, which gives vinegar its characteristic flavour. Cider vinegar is made from apples and is native to America. Distilled vinegar is colourless and quite strong and is often used in pickling. Malt vinegar is made from malted barley and has a caramel colour. Rice vinegar, used predominantly in Japan and China could be red white or even black in colour. Wine vinegar is obtained from wine or sherry. Flavoured vinegars are common these days and flavours such as herbs (tarragon, dill, rosemary) fruits (lemon, raspberry), flowers (rose petal) and vegetables (horseradish) are added to the vinegar.

Vinegar was originally use as a preservative. However, it is now being used as an aromatic complement to the food.  When flavouring with vinegar, be sure to taste constantly to avoid over seasoning. In hot foods, add the vinegar towards the end of the cooking time. Flavour will not be lost due to evaporation. Vinegar has great value in the kitchen when used with understanding and caution.

Marinades

The final flavouring agent is the marinade, a seasoned liquid in which a product is soaked for the purpose of flavouring as well as tenderizing.         A marinade consists of four parts:

-The oil

-The acidic content

-The seasoning and the flavours and

– Flavour enhancers

There are two types of marinade: The cooked marinade and the raw marinade.

The cooked marinade is first prepared over heat before the product is added to it.

Raw marinade is a mixture used without being cooked, thereby requiring longer exposure of the product and is used to change the texture of the product.

When marinating for longer periods, it is best to refrigerate the product. Otherwise, marination takes place best at room temperature. The thicker the product, the longer it will take to marinate. Meats take a longer time to marinate than fish.

To conclude, one must understand that seasonings and flavourings are the cornerstones of culinary excellence. A sure sign of inexperience is over seasoning or under seasoning a dish. Traditional boundaries have been relaxed in recent years, allowing you to take a classical dish and adding a subtle twist to it. In this manner, a good chef develops his own style. One of the greatest assets of culinary art is that it is limited only by your imagination.

SUNIL KUMAR

SIHM ROHTAK

 

CHAPTER 03: FOOD PRESENTATION

Finally, the real test has come. It is time to put away the spatulas and the whisks. The food must be served. It is important that the creativity and the skill that went into the cooking, baking or otherwise preparing the food are not wasted because of sloppy presentation. While Food Preparation is a science, Food Presentation is an art. Good plate presentation results from careful attention. How food is presented is as important as how it is prepared. Poor presentation of well-prepared food lowers its value. Throughout history, man has adorned and decorated his food in one way or the other. Whether this was done in extreme measures or in a very simplistic manner, the intent was to make it more appealing.

The final step in food preparation is to justify the hours of hard work spent in cooking the food by serving and presenting it properly. Service is the process of delivering the selected food to diners in the proper fashion. Hot food should be served hot and on heated plates. Cold foods should be served very cold and on chilled plates. Presentation is the process of offering the selected food to the diners in a fashion that is visually appealing. When presenting food, remember that diners consume first with their eyes and then with their mouths. The food must be pleasantly and appropriately colored, cut or molded. The colors, textures, shape and arrangements of all foods work together to form a pleasing combination on the plate. Plates should be neat and clean.

Presenting food properly required a high level of skill, knowledge and imagination it is much more than just placing a sprig of parsley on a plate beside the steak or the chicken. The key word in plate presentation is BALANCE. It is a balance of color, texture, size, shape. And then there is temperature. The food presented must be appropriate to the occasion. It must be matched to the likes and often the beliefs of the guest. Presentation must complement the food, not disguise or hide it. Failure to do these things will doom to failure the best of dishes.

BASIC FACTORS OF PRESENTATION

Temperature:

Good presentation of food means nothing if the food is not served at the correct temperature. To ensure the quality of hot food, it must be served on hot plates. All food should also be of the right temperature before it is placed on the plate. Hot food should be covered with warm food/plate covers to retain the temperature. It is vital that hot food is served to the customer immediately.

Cold food should be served on chilled plated. It should be thoroughly chilled before serving – either refrigerated or held on ice before plating. As with hot food, cold food too should be served immediately after plating.

The most basic factor in Food Presentation is Temperature.  HOT FOOD SHOULD BE SERVED PIPING HOT AND COLD FOOD MUST BE SERVED CHILLED. Successful co ordination of temperatures required good planning and execution.

Flavour:

A plate of food is intended to be eaten. This means everything on the plate. When the guest begins to eat, they do not eat first the meat, then the potatoes and then the vegetables. They take bites of each. At any time, the mouth of the guest contains the flavor of every food that is on the plate. If the combined flavors of the items are not pleasing, then the meal is a failure. No matter how well each item on the plate is prepared, if the flavors are not complementary, the effect is not pleasing. It is not enough to ensure good preparation. You must also ensure a good balanced presentation of the flavors. Escoffier said that a meal is like a symphony. It should begin softly, gradually building to a grand finale. He understood that it is the melding of the flavors in the mouth, which determined the pleasure of the meal.

To place shrimp in cream sauce on the same plate as sweet and sour cabbage is to create an unpleasant taste for the guest. The acid in the cabbage will curdle the cream in the shrimp sauce as they meld in the mouth. It is this type of mis- matching that should be avoided. Both dishes may have been excellent if they had been served separately. Yet, when served together, the effect was undesirable. Balancing flavors on the plate become easier once you understand the nature of foodstuff and ingredients. To begin, remember, rich is served with lean, sweet with sour and sweet with spicy. The goal is to produce a pleasing, not overpowering, taste experience for the guest. If everything on the plate were highly seasoned or sweet would be overwhelming for the taste buds. Remember that it is flavor, which makes the food enjoyable. However, flavor is not always obvious to the eye. It is necessary to create eye appeal in presentation, which leads us to the next part of this discussion.

COLOR

Although a plate of Fried fish and French fries may taste good, it has minimal eye appeal. Everything is brown in color and crisp in texture. It offers little variety or excitement for the eye. A simple addition of a portion of Cole slaw on a bright green lettuce leaf will transform the plate completely. It improves not only the flavor and the mouth feel of the dish but provides color and contrast to the eye. In presenting food, hot or cold remember that multiple colors are more eyes appealing. Yet, however, too many colors can create a gaudy and confusing effect. The colors used on the plate should be natural. Artificial and non-food colors should be avoided color. The use of fruit and vegetables with a meat dish will always improve the color, but must be appropriate. The plate should be empty when the guest finishes eating. Therefore, color on the plate should be part of what is to be eaten. A sprig of parsley might add color but is of no use if it is left behind on the plate.

SHAPES

Eye appeal can be gained not only through color but through the shape of the food as well. As with color, variety is the key. A plate of meat balls, new potatoes and brussel sprouts may taste good and have a pleasing color. Yet it is boring…everything is round. Replace the sprouts with green beans and the potatoes with mashed potatoes. You now have variety not only in the color but also in the shapes. The effect is pleasing to the eye. The variety in shapes is limited only by your imagination. There are a great number of different cuts of fruit and vegetable which can be produced in quantities. Use a variety of cutters:  rounds, triangles, squares and half slices to improve your presentation without too much effort. Choose foods whose natural shapes complement each other.

TEXTURE

Texture in food presentation takes two forms. One is the way food feels in the mouth: crunchy, soft, firm. The second form is the exterior appearance of the item. Does it look soft and yielding, or hard and unyielding? Is it liquid, solid, viscous, Is it dull shiny, wet or dry? Texture is all of these. As with flavor, color and shapes, variety is the key to using texture. Food presented in a group must be balances in texture. Soft, firm and crunchy textures should be judiciously mixed on the plate.  A crispy fried chicken would go well with a portion of mashed potatoes. Physical textures would include: smooth, coarse and solid. Visual textures would include: pureed, speckled and patchy.

GARNISH

Food presentation is often referred to as garniture. This is defined as the process of garnish. In the classical French kitchen the terms garni and garniture have a long history. It was unthinkable to write a menu without the classical garniture of each particular dish. The French kitchen had many simple and elaborate garnishes which were often named after diplomats, politicians, places, regions and even events. Some of these classical garnishes are still used today in the modern kitchen. They act as a base to develop new and different presentations.

MODERN PLATE GARNISH

Today the term garnish is widely misused. A sprig of parsley, a leaf of lettuce, a slice of orange is placed on the plate next to the steak or a piece of fried chicken. This might add to the color of the plate but does little else. It is not functional and is more often than not left behind on the plate. Use imagination and thought before applying a garnish. Very often, if the plate has the proper balance of the five basic factors, no garnish is required. Where there is poor contrast, such as steak and baked potato, a simple garnish may be required for contrast. However, this should be appropriate to the food, functional and edible.

Currently, there is a shift towards smaller portion sizes with good nutritional balance. Plates should not be overcrowded. The plate is best when simple yet elegant to the eye. The plate should present a combination of foods working together. It should not be several components that happen to be on the same plate. Harmony and unity is a combination that pleases the eye. It is one in which no one particular item is overbearing. This does not mean that one item may not be dominant, but that the others present complement it. Of primary importance is that the portion size matches the plate size. It should not look crowded or sparse. Each item should logically balance with the other. It would be wrong for the vegetable portion to be larger than the meat which is the main item. The meat is the central focus of the plate and the vegetables should only complement and highlight the meat, not overshadow it. Some simple and basic guidelines are given below. These should be used together with the five basic factors already mentioned.

THE PLATE:

Properly cooked, neatly cut and appropriately molded food should not be haphazardly slapped onto a plate. Rather, you should choose and position the food carefully to achieve a plate presentation with a balanced and harmonious composition. The composition can be further enhanced by use of garnish and sauces. They will not affect the flavour of the food per se but they can make the presented food more attractive. Some garnishes like the addition of chopped nuts to a dessert or painting the plate with two sauces will add flavor and texture to the dish.

Choosing the plate: Restaurant china is available in a variety of shapes sizes and colors. It is the chef’s responsibility to choose an appropriate plate for a particular dish. Most plates are round, but oval, square and even triangular plates are now available. Plates are also available in a variety of sizes. The traditional 12” plate for a main course is no more essential and necessary. Plates are also typically concave and their depths vary. Absolutely flat plates could also be used now. The rule should be that plates must be large enough to hold the food comfortably without overcrowding. Portion size should determine the size of the plate. The plate should highlight the food and not take away from it. Highly patterned plates should be avoided. That is why; most chefs prefer simple white plates. Colored plates could be used to accent food however. The obvious choice is to contrast dark plates with bright or light colored foods and light plates with dark colored foods. The shape of the plate could also contrast the food. Round shaped foods in a square/rectangular plate. The food should always be the focal point of the presentation; the plate should only serve to enhance this presentation

PLATE ARRANGEMENT – SOME GUIDELINES……

1. Keep food off the rim of the plate. The well of the plate is where the food should be, if the food is too much for the well of the plate, then get larger plates or reduce the amount of the food.
2. Arrange the food in unity. Do not have the food spread to all parts of the plate. The focus should be on the center of the plate, not on the edges and the rim.
3. Place the food in the most attractive manner. The better side of the meat on top. The bone of a chop should face away from the guest.
4. Sauces can improve plate presentation. Serve the sauce around or under the food….never on the top of the main item. Be careful not to over sauce and drown the food. Serve extra sauce separately in a sauce-boat. Keep sauces light and natural…not heavy and pasty.
5. Refrain from using the same pattern over and over again in the different courses.
6. Garnish only when necessary. A garnish is added for balance and must be functional.
7. Simplicity is the key. It is more attractive to have a simple plate presentation rather than a complex one. Elaborate designs are often confusing and time consuming. They are unpleasant to the eye if not done properly.

To conclude, presentation of food requires skill and practice. It is not just a matter of putting the food onto the plate and sending it out to the guest. The time and effort spent on preparation of the food can be spoilt by a sloppy and shoddy presentation. There is a great deal of opportunity for creativity and imagination. Experiment, develop and originate your own unique style. Use classical garnishes to good effect. Balance is the key and, if achieved, quality is the result. The meals you serve to your guests will be symphonies and will be long remembered.

SUNIL KUMAR

SIHM ROHTAK

 

 

CHAPTER 04: FOOD SAFETY AND SANITATION

Sanitation refers to the creation and maintenance of conditions that will prevent food contamination or food borne illnesses. Contamination refers to the presence, generally unintended, of harmful organisms or substances. These contaminants can be

1. Biological
2. Chemical
3. Physical.

When consumed in sufficient quantities, food borne contaminants can cause illness or injury, long lasting disease or even death. Contamination occurs in two ways

–     direct contamination and

–     Cross contamination.

Direct contamination is the contamination of raw food or the plant or animals from which they come.  Chemical or biological contaminants such as bacteria and fungus are present in the air, soil and water. So foods can be contaminated by their exposure to the environment. Grain can get contaminated by soil fumigants in the field and seafood can be affected by ingesting toxic marine algae.

Chemical and microorganisms cannot move on their own however. They need to be transported, an event known as Cross-contamination. The major cause of cross-contamination is people. Food handlers can transfer biological, chemical or physical contaminants to the food while processing, preparing, cooking and serving the food. It is necessary therefore to view sanitation as the correction of problems caused by direct contamination and the prevention of problems caused by cross-contamination during processing and service.

 

 

 

 

BIOLOGICAL CONTAMINANTS

 

Several micro organisms, primarily bacteria, cause biologically based food borne illnesses. By understanding how these organisms live and reproduce you can better understand how to protect food from them.

Bacteria:

Bacteria which are single celled micro organisms are the leading cause of food borne illnesses. Some bacteria are beneficial such as those that aid in digesting food or decomposing garbage. Other bacteria spoil food, without rendering it unfit for human consumption. These bacteria called putrefactive are not a sanitation concern. The bacteria that are dangerous when consumed by humans are called pathogenic. These bacteria must be destroyed or controlled in a food service operation. Most bacteria reproduce by binary fission. Their genetic material is first duplicated and the nucleus then splits, each new nucleus taking some of the cellular material with it. Under favorable conditions, some bacteria can divide every 15-30 minutes. Within 12 hours, one bacterium can become a colony of 72 billion bacteria, more than enough to cause a serious illness. Some rod shaped bacteria are capable of forming spores. Spores are thick wall structures used as a protection against hostile environment. The bacteria essentially hibernate within their spores where they can survive extreme conditions that would otherwise destroy them. When conditions become favorable, the bacteria return to a viable state. This is important in food sanitation because heating or sanitizing techniques may not destroy bacterial spores.

Intoxications and infections: Depending upon the particular micro organisms, pathogenic bacteria can cause illnesses in humans in one of the three ways:

– Intoxications,

– Infections and

– Toxin medicated infection.

Botulism is a well known example of intoxication. Certain bacteria produce toxins, byproducts of their life processes. You cannot smell, see or taste toxins. Ingesting these toxin producing bacteria by themselves does not cause illness. But when their toxins are ingested, the toxin can poison the consumer. Proper food handling techniques are critical in preventing intoxication because even if a food is cooked to a sufficiently high temperature to kill all bacteria present, the toxins they leave behind are usually not destroyed.

The second type of bacterial illness is an infection. Salmonella is an especially well known example. An infection occurs when live pathogenic bacteria (infectants) are ingested. The bacteria then live in the consumer’s intestinal tract. It is the living bacteria, not their waste products that cause an illness. Infectants must be alive when eaten for them to do any harm. Fortunately, these bacteria can be destroyed by cooking foods to sufficiently high temperatures of 65°F (74°C) or higher. The third type of bacterial illness has characteristics of both – an intoxication and an infection, and is referred to as a toxin mediated infection. Examples are Clostridium Perfringens and E Coli. When these living organisms are ingested, they establish colonies in human or animal intestinal tracts, where they then produce toxins. These bacteria are particularly dangerous for young children, the elderly and the infirm.

PREVENTING BACTERIAL INFECTIONS AND INTOXICATIONS.

All bacteria, like other living things need certain conditions to complete their life cycles.  Like humans, they need food, a comfortable temperature, moisture, the proper PH, the proper atmosphere and time. The best way to prevent bacterial intoxications and infections is to attack the factors that bacteria need to survive and multiply.

FOOD: Bacteria need food and energy for growth. The foods on which bacteria thrive are referred to as potentially hazardous foods (PHF).They are generally high in protein and include animal based products, cooked grains and some cooked vegetables. These foods and items containing these foods must be handled with great care.

TEMPERATURE:  Is the most important factor in the pathogenic bacterial environment, because it is the factor most easily controlled by Food Service workers. Most micro organisms are destroyed at high temperatures. Freezing slows but does not stop growth, nor does it destroy the bacteria.  Most bacteria that cause food borne illnesses multiply rapidly at temperatures between 60°F and 120°F (16°C and 49°C). Therefore, the broad range of temperatures between 40°F and 140°F (6°C and 60°C) is referred to the food danger zone. By keeping foods out of the temperature danger zone, you decrease the bacteria’s ability to thrive and reproduce. To control the growth of any bacteria that may be present, it is important to maintain the internal temperature of food at 140°F (60°C) or above OR 48°F (6°C) or below. Simply stated, keep hot foods hot and cold foods cold. Potentially hazardous foods should be heated or cooled rapidly so that they are within the temperature zone as briefly as possibly. This is known as the Time and Temperature Principle.

Keep hot foods hot. The high internal temperatures reached during proper cooking kill most of the bacteria that can cause food borne illnesses. When foods are reheated, the internal temperature should quickly reach or exceed 165°F (74°C) in order to kill any bacteria that may have grown during storage. Once properly heated, hot foods should be held at temperatures of 140°F (60°C) or above. Foods that are displayed or served hot must be heated rapidly when heating or reheating foods to reduce the time in the danger zone. When heating or reheating foods

–      heat small quantities at a time

–      stir frequently

–      heat food as close to service time as possible

–      use pre heated ingredients wherever possible to prepare hot foods

–      never use a steam table for heating or reheating foods

–      bring reheated food to an appropriate temperature (165F or 74°C)

Keep cold foods cold: Foods that are to be displayed, stored or served cold must be cooled rapidly.

–      Refrigerate semi solid foods preferably at 40°F (4°C) or below in containers that are less that 2” deep. Increased surface area decreases cooling time.

–      Avoid crowding the refrigerator. Allow air to circulate around the foods.

–      Vent hot foods in an ice water bath.

–      Pre chill ingredients such as mayonnaise before preparing cold foods.

–      Store cooked foods above raw foods to prevent cross contamination.

Keep frozen foods frozen: Freezing at 0°F (-18°C) or below essentially stops bacterial growth but will not kill the bacteria.  Do not place hot foods in a regular freezer. This will not cool the food any faster and the release of heat can raise the temperature of the other foods in the refrigerator. Only a special blast freezer can be used for chilling hot items. If one is not available, cool and hot foods as mentioned earlier before freezing them. When frozen foods are thawed, bacteria that are present will begin to grow.

Therefore:

–      Never thaw foods at room temperature.

–      Thaw foods gradually under refrigeration to maintain the foods temperature at 40°F or less. Place thawing foods in a container to prevent cross-contamination, from leaking or dripping liquids.

–      In an emergency, thaw foods under running water at a temperature of 70°F or 21°C or cooler.

–      Thaw foods in a microwave only if the food is prepared and served immediately.

CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS

Contamination of foods by a wide variety of chemicals is a very real and serious danger. Chemical contamination is usually inadvertent and invisible, making it very difficult to detect. The only way to avoid such hazards is for everyone working in the food service operation to follow proper procedures when handling food or chemicals. Chemical contamination could be caused by

–      residual chemicals

–      food service chemicals

–      toxic metals

Residual chemicals such as antibiotics, fertilizers, insecticides and herbicides have brought about great progress are controlling plant animal and human disease. Thereby permitting greater crop yield and stimulating animal growth. The benefits derived from these chemicals however must be contrasted with the adverse effect on humans when they are used indiscriminately or improperly. The danger of these chemicals lies in the possible contamination of human food, which occurs when the chemical residues remain after the intended goal is achieved. Fruits and vegetables must be washed and peeled properly, lentils and dals should be washed and then soaked and this water discarded to make sure the risk of chemical contamination is reduced and if possible removed altogether to ensure chemical residues are not consumed.

Food service chemicals such as cleaners, polishes and, abrasives pesticides which contain common chemicals are found in every food service operation. Serious illness and even death can be caused if these chemicals contaminate the food. Common products like bug spray, drain cleaner and oven cleaner can pose a hazard if stored near food. Even cleaning soap used on plates and dishes can cause contamination if not properly rinsed off. To avoid such contamination, ensure that all food service cleaning material is properly labeled and stored away from any food related items or near cooking areas. Nerve reuses empty containers again for food service even if properly washed.

Toxic metals are another type of chemical contamination and occur when metals such as lead, mercury, zinc, antimony or copper are dispersed in food or water.

–      Metals can accumulate in fish and shell fish living in polluted waters or also in plants grown in soil contaminated by these metals.

–      Using an acidic food such as tomatoes or wine in zinc lined (galvanized) or unlined copper vessel can cause metal INS to be released in the food.

–      Antimony is used in the bonding of enamelware and it can be released into food when the enamel is chipped.

–      Lead enters the water from lead pipes and solder and is found in the glaze on some ceramic tiles.

Consuming any of these metals can be poisonous. Be cautious in using service ware or cookware that might be susceptible to poisoning.

PHYSICAL CONTAMINANTS

Physical contamination can be caused by foreign objects finding their way into the food. These might be inadvertent and could be pieces of string or rope in a gunny bag of flour, metal shavings caused by an old can opener, pieces of glass from a broken container or even hair and dirt in some prepared food.  However, physical contamination can be caused intentionally and purposely as in cases of Food Adulteration. This can be harmful and lead to serious and sometimes fatal consequences and will be dealt with in a later chapter.

CROSS-CONTAMINATION

Generally, microorganisms and other contaminants cannot move by themselves. Rather, they are carried to food and food contact surfaces by humans, rodents such as rats and mice or insects. This transfer is referred to as cross-contamination.

For example, one item such as your finger or the cutting board becomes contaminated and then contaminates some other food or tool such as your knife. Using a knife to cut raw chicken and then using the same cutting board or knife (without washing/disinfecting it first) to cut salad ingredients to be eaten raw; will cause cross contamination to occur.

Cross-contamination can occur with bacteria or other microorganisms, chemicals, dirt and debris. Kitchen towels, dusters and other such cleaning material are a common source of cross-contamination. If a cook uses such a duster to wipe of some spill from the floor and then uses the same to wipe his hands after visiting the rest room, he has re contaminated his hands with whatever dirt or bacteria was on the floor. Cross=contamination also occurs when raw food comes into contact with cooked foods. Never store cooked food below raw /defrosting food in the refrigerator unless covered. Never use a container that had raw food to store cooked food unless properly sanitized.  Cross-contamination can easily occur from smoking in the kitchen and therefore this useless activity is totally banned in all kitchens and food service operations.  Personal hygiene and cleanliness, equipment and dish sanitizing and pest management can reduce cross-contamination.

HACCP SYSTEMS

Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) is proving to be an efficient and effective system for managing and maintaining sanitary conditions in all types Food Service operations. Developed in 1971 by NASA to ensure food safety for astronauts, HACCP is a stringent and rigorous system of self inspection. It focuses on flow of food through the food service facility from the time the decision is made to put an item on the menu to ordering and receipt of ingredients from the supplier, to receiving the raw material, inspection, storage, issuing, pre preparation, cooking, portioning and presentation and finally the service.  These activities that pose the maximum risk (critical points) should be closely monitored to prevent the growth of dangerous pathogenic bacteria.

Note that standards/boundaries applied in a formal HACCP system are no different from those that should be followed in any food service operation. HACCP does not impose new or different food safety standards. It is merely a system for assuring that those standards are actually followed. One way of to assure compliance is to frequently check and record the temperature of Potentially Hazardous Foods (PHF) during cooking, cooling and holding. Whatever system is followed, all personnel must be constantly aware of and responsive to risks and problems associated with the safety of the food they serve.

THE SAFE WORKER

The kitchens are filled with objects that can cut, burn, break, and crush or sprain the human body. The best way to prevent work-related injuries is proper training, good work habits and careful supervision.

Safe behavior on the job reflects pride, professionalism and consideration for fellow workers. The following should alert you to conditions and activities aimed at preventing accidents and injuries.

–      Clean up spills as soon as they occur.

–      Learn to operate equipment carefully and correctly.

–      Wear clothes that fit properly

–      Avoid jewelry that may get caught in the equipment.

–      Use knives and such equipment for their intended use only.

–      Walk, do not run.

–      Keep exits, aisles and staircases free from obstruction.

–      Always assume pots and pans are hot and use dry towels to handle them.

–      Position handles of pots and pans away from the aisle.

–      Get help when moving heavy containers. Get help if necessary.

–      Be careful when lifting heavy objects. Squat and then lift, do not bend.

–      Use appropriate ladder when climbing, not a chair which was intended to sit on, not stand.

–      Warn people when you must walk behind them especially when carrying a hot pan.

–      Use disposable gloves when handling cooked food and foods that are to be served raw. Change gloves when handling different foods.

Yet, inevitably, some accidents will occur. In an emergency, it is important to act appropriately. This could mean calling for help or to provide First Aid. Every Food Service facility must carry a complete First Aid kit which is easily accessible. All employees must be trained in basic First Aid procedures and a list of emergency telephone numbers readily available.

SUNIL KUMAR

SIHM ROHTAK

 

CHAPTER 5: LE GARDE MANGER – An Introduction

The Larder or Garde Manger, as it is known in French, is a department set aside for the storage of perishable foods, both raw and cooked, and where such foodstuff such as meat, fish, poultry and even game are prepared and made ready for cooking. In this department too, all cold items found on the menu, such as hors d’oeuvre, cold fish or meat dishes, cold sauces salads and salad dressings and charcuterie are prepared and dressed.

For these functions to be effectively carried out, it is essential that:

1. The larder should be separate from the kitchen and located in a cool place. At the same time it should be close to the kitchen to avoid undue running about between the two departments which are closely inter- related. It should be light and airy and well ventilated, sufficiently spacious to allow the staff to carry out their work efficiently. During the setup of the larder, enough attention must be paid to the physical attributes such as the flooring, tiling, exhaust systems, ventilation and lighting, both natural as well as artificial.
2. It should be fitted with the necessary equipment that would be required to carry out the work. Equipment could be classified as heavy, light and miscellaneous (see attached list for the classification of the equipment).
3. There should be adequate and well trained staff. Most of the work in the larder is of a specialized nature and requires proper training and understanding.

Breakdown of work

 

It naturally follows that the work in the larder needs to be broken down into various sections and each section is the responsibility of a chef trained in that area. The Chef Garde Manger who is the over all in charge of the department allocates the duties. His assistants are called either assistant chefs or commis garde manger. Depending upon the volume of the work, the number of sections will vary and so will the number of the staff required. At times in a small establishment, the larder chef may work single- handed, and carry out all the work himself.

The sections could include:

–    Hors d’oeuvres and appetizers

–         Cold sauces

–         Salads and salad dressings

–         Vegetables and vegetable carvings

–         Fruit and fruit carvings

–         Sandwiches and canapés (for buffet functions)

–         Charcuterie

–         Butchery (including the fish mongery & ecaillage)

Very often, in smaller establishments, the sections could be collapsed into smaller units doing more than one task and one chef /commis could be responsible for more than one section.

Responsibilities of the Chef Garde Manger

 

The responsibilities of the Larder Chef are many and varied. He is responsible to the Executive chef for the smooth running and operation of his department. He is also responsible for co ordination between his staff and has to make sure that they have understood the work required from them and the production schedule, either daily or weekly.  Training is another important function he has to carry out. As I have mentioned earlier, the work of the larder is of a highly skilled nature and involves a lot of expensive ingredients, procedures and equipment it is therefore imperative that the staff is well trained.  With regards to the staff, the larder Chef is also responsible for their scheduling and duty rotas. Moreover, he is also required to co ordinate with the other departments like the kitchen and the bakery. A lot of pre preparation is done in the larder for the other departments and satellite kitchens. Their requirements must be made available well in advance. He also has to maintain registers to record the receipts and dispatch of the foodstuff. He is also responsible for maintaining hygiene and sanitation standards in the department. Remember, a lot of the foodstuff being processed here is in the raw sate and susceptible to contamination and possible food poisoning.

Larder Control

 

If the larder is to be run effectively, efficiently and economically, it is essential that the Chef Garde Manger exercise strict control over the foodstuff received and stored in the department. This will involve:

1. Checking the quality and quantity of all food received in the department.
2. Ensuring that all food stuff is stored at the right temperature and that they can easily be checked
3. That the food is protected from contamination by vermin.
4. That portion control is ensured.
5. That stock is regularly turned over.
6. That food is not over stocked.
7. A simple daily stock sheet to be maintained by each sub department.
8. Every possible effort is made to ensure the highest standard of hygiene.
9. Pilferage is discouraged and controlled.

A simple control system should be installed to keep a check. It should be simple to use otherwise at busy periods it will be ignored and this will itself defeat the purpose of control.

List of Equipment, Machinery and Tools

 

Heavy:

–         Refrigeration equipment including refrigerators, walk-ins, reach-in, pull outs, traulsen, deep freezers, bottle coolers, ice machines, coolers and chillers.

–     Food Processors with attachments for grinding, pureeing, kneading, mixing,

–    Buffalo choppers, bone saws

–   Gas range, boilers, and heaters (if required)

–    Weighing scales – Electronic and manual

–     Steel tables, cupboards, storage racks and sinks

 

 

Light:

–         Mixers, juicers

–         Butchers block

–         Storage bins and shelves

–         Slicers

–         Blow torch

–         Pots, pans, stockpots

Miscellaneous:

–         Frying and flat spoons

–         Assorted knives

–         Butchers saw (Tenon and bow)

–         Butchers chopper

–         Filleting knives and palette knives

–         Piping bags and assorted nozzles

–         Peelers, fancy cutters, mandolin slicer

–         Wooden spoons and mushrooms

–         Cutlet bat and steak hammers

–         Larding and trussing needles and pins

–         Lemon zesters, decorating knives and vegetable scoops

–         Skewers, butchers hooks

–         Brining syringe, brinometer, assorted thermometers

–         Assorted trays for storage of food.

All small equipment must be washed and cleaned and dried after every use.

SUNIL KUMAR

SIHM ROHTAK

 

 

Chapter 6: Hors d’oeuvre and Appetizers

‘Faire manger-les sans appetit, faire briller l’esprit de ceux en out et faire trouver a ceux qui en desirent, est le supreme role des hors d’oeuvre’

(For those who are not hungry…….to perk up the spirit of some and to give spirit to others who are without it, this is the task of the hors d’oeuvre on a menu)

This definition/explanation of the hors d’oeuvre was presented by Escoffier in one of his earlier books.

Hors d’oeuvre is a French expression and its true definition is a preparation served outside of the menu proper, at the beginning of the meal before the main course. It comes from the French term outside (hors) and goes back to the early times when at banquets, the appetizer (hors d’oeuvre) was served in a separate room (ante chamber/room) while the guests assembled and waited for the arrival of the host and the chief guest. Hors d’oeuvre or appetizer as it is called in English can be described as a small tidbit, which should be light, delicate attractive and tasty. The term hors d’oeuvre should never be spelt with the final s, since there is plural form for the term in French. An hors d’oeuvre can be either in the solid form (appetizer) or in the liquid form (aperitif) which may be an alcoholic or non-alcoholic beverage.

Hors d’oeuvre may be classified in various ways:

Hot and Cold hors d’oeuvre

Vegetarian and Non vegetarian hors d’oeuvre

Classical and Contemporary hors d’oeuvre

Hors d’oeuvre Singulaire and Compound hors d’oeuvre

However, a more comprehensive classification would include:

–         Meat based hors d’oeuvre

Pate, Terrines, Sausages (salami and mortadella), Ham

–         Fish based hors d’oeuvre

Oysters, Caviar, Roll mops, Snails, Prawn cocktail

–         Egg based hors d’oeuvre

Egg mayonnaise, stuffed eggs, devilled eggs, Gulls/Plovers eggs

–    Vegetable based hors d’oeuvre: Asparagus, Artichokes, Corn-on-the-cob

–         Fruit based hors d’oeuvre : Melon, Grapefruit, Florida cocktail

Sometimes, Hors d’oeuvre are classified as:

Cold Hors d’oeuvre

Hot Hors d’oeuvre

Zakuski and

Canapés

Cold Hors d’oeuvre is of two categories:

1. The ready to serve variety, available in the market off the shelves, like smoked salmon, pate, sausages.
2. Those which require culinary preparation and that, when made properly have the advantage of being freshly prepared from fresh ingredients with maximum flavor and appeal. This is where fine cuisine can make a contribution to eating pleasure.

Hors d’oeuvre varies are often served at lunch and consist of many items served in a container called raviers. Various items can qualify to be called a part of hors d’oeuvre varies such as olives, pickled onions, cornichons (pickled gherkins), sliced salami, ham and even items like smoked salmon and gulls/plovers eggs

Hot hors d’oeuvre could generally be served at a cocktail party or before a dinner but seldom at lunch. Although there are some hot hors d’oeuvre that are considered to b classical, there are many others that are strictly prototype and serve as a basis for many different preparations. As a matter of fact, every branch of cookery that is reduced to a smaller portion is or could be used in the preparation of hot hors d’oeuvre. Paillettes, allumettes, beignets, frittes, bouchees, croustades, rissoles, ramequins and even the classsic quiche can all be served as hot hors d’oeuvre when reduced in size.

What are Zakuskis?

In the 1890s, zakuski, or hors d’oeuvre a la russe or canapés a la russe became very popular.

These cold hors d’oeuvre are considered to be classical and made up of certain specified ingredients. Chefs in Russia were patronized by the Czars and reached the pinnacle of their profession.  It consists of a base of Blinis; the famous Russian pancake made out of buckwheat flour. This was topped with a topping that would be meat, fish, vegetable or combination of these. A characteristic of the topping is that it would most often be flavored with a smoked fish or meat. The surface would be decorated elaborately; and here is where the chef had the chance to demonstrate his imagination and his skill. Intricate garnishes of exquisite designs would decorate the zakuski. This would then be finished off with a glaze of aspic. The zakuski is a dinner hors d’oeuvre and are larger in size than the canapé. They are presented to the guest individually, without an accompaniment or sauce.

Cold Canapés

How would you describe a canapé?

These are tiny open faced snacks, which are cut into a variety of shapes – round, rectangular, oval, triangle or other shapes. The size and thickness will depend upon the nature of the ingredients used. A canapé will have three parts:

The base – which would normally be bread – toasted or plain, white or brown? However, a variety of other base ingredients could also be used – puff pastry, flaky pastry, short crust, pizza dough, choux pastry, are examples of the variety that can be used. Sometimes, a spread would be applied to the base to prevent it from soaking up the moisture of the topping.

The topping – almost anything could be used to top the base. However, it should be suitable and must complement the base. It should be fairy dry and must hold shape. A slice of cheese, hard boiled egg, ham, salami, mushrooms or chicken coated with a thick cream sauce, marinated mushrooms and prawns could all be used as topping. The list is limitless and can only be contained by the imagination.

The garnish – this is done more to increase the visual appeal and the appearance than for any functional value. A slice of olive, a sprig of parsley, a dice of capsicum or even a green pea can all be used to increase the presentation of the platter of canapés

Canapés are usually served as snacks at cocktail parties and are never featured on the regular menu. Some classical canapés are served as the savoury course. Here are some popular canapés:

Canapé Rigoletto: Butter a canapé with cayenne butter. Sprinkle with a mixture of finely chopped whites and yolks of egg, ham, tongue, fine herbs and truffles.

Canapés a la danoise: Butter rye bread with horseradish butter, arrange slices of smoked salmon and filets of marinated herrings on top.

Canapés cancalaise: Butter a canapé with tuna fish butter, top with a poached mussel and decorate with a sprig of parsley.

Canapé rejane: Butter a slice of bread with lobster butter, top with a mound of chopped egg and mayonnaise and decorate with lobster coral.

Canapés a la nicoise: Butter the bread with anchovy butter. Pile stuffed olives on top and fill the gaps with anchovy butter.

Canapés poulette: Butter round canapés with anchovy butter, sprinkle sieved boiled egg yolks and top with a shrimp.

Canapés vie vile: cover a canapé with tarragon butter, top with a slice of ham and decorate with tarragon leaves.

Assignment: make a list of innovative canapés breaking them into the base, the topping and the garnish.

 

 

 

SUNIL KUMAR

SIHM ROHTAK

 

CHAPTER 7: SANDWICHES

 

It’s no good telling you about John Montague, the Fourth Earl of Sandwich. No doubt you know all about that…..At least I hope you do!!

A sandwich may be many things – it can be a delicious bit of nonsense that makes you ask for more!  It can be prim and proper and just a bit stodgy – or staunch and hearty – or it might just be an empty promise!!!!

It is difficult to actually pin point when the sandwich actually appeared as a form of food presentation. We do know that the concept of wrapping bread around a filling for portability is ancient. It parallels the invention of bread. The sandwich involves bread in one way or the other. There is a universal chain of food items worldwide which all have a connection of a filling enclosed in a starchy casing. In China there is the Spring roll or the Egg roll; in Italy there is the Calzone; in Mexico, the Burrito; in Spain, the Empanada and Greece has the Pita.

Field workers in France have long had the custom of eating meat enclosed in two slices of bread. In southern France, it is customary to provide those setting out on a long journey with slices of cooked meat, sandwiched between two slices of bread. The Pain–Bagnat of Nice is a definite example of a sandwich that has been around for centuries.

The term SANDWICH came into being about 200 years ago. There lived a notorious gambler in the court of George III His name was John Montague, the Fourth Earl of Sandwich (1718-1792). The Earls gambling affliction was such, that he would enter into 24 hours marathons at the gaming tables. Any eating that had to be done had to be quick and not to detract from the task at hand. The Earl’s butler, who knew his master’s intensity, would place pieces of bread with cheese or meat for his sustenance. The rest is …..Well, not just history…..But the history of the Sandwich. Today, it is difficult to imagine a full-scale food service operation without the sandwich being a part of it.

PARTS OF A SANDWICH

The four parts of a sandwich can be listed as:

–         Bread                        – Filling

–         Spread                      – Garnish

I   Bread

Various types of bread can be used to make sandwiches

1. The Pullman loaf or the sandwich bread is the most popular. This may be white or brown
2. Rolls – including hard and soft rolls, burger rolls, hot dog rolls, croissants and vienna rolls are all popular.
3. French bread and baguettes for foot longs and submarine sandwiches
4. Bread made of various flours such as  rye, whole wheat, maize, multigrain
5. Unleavened bread like pita
6. Flavored bread like cinnamon bread, raisin bread, fruit and nut bread.

II   Spread

 

The main function of the spread is to hold the filling and the bread together. It also forms a protective layer on the bread and prevents it from getting soggy from the moisture in the filling. Moreover, it adds to the taste of the sandwich and in case of children, contributes to the nutritive value

Plain and compound butter like anchovy, herb, parsley butter

Mayonnaise and its derivatives

Low fat spreads like margarine

Cheese spreads and cheese paste

A combination of the above.

III Filling

Could be a variety of limitless items. The filling gives the sandwich its name.

Fillings could include meat, poultry, fish, eggs, cheese, and vegetables. Salami, cooked roast chicken, ox tongue, sliced cucumber and tomato are all popular fillings.

The filling could be a single item, or a combination of several. Ham and cheese, Cucumber and chutney, Bacon and tomato. It is important that the combinations are complementary to each other.

IV Garnish

 

To enhance the appearance and the presentation of the sandwich, it is necessary to create eye appeal. The garnish is not absolutely essential and can be avoided in an informal setting. The sandwich may be a simple unadorned bit of bread with a filling or a masterpiece fit for a king. Various garnishes will include a stuffed olive, a pickled onion, capers, gherkins or parsley. The garnish should be delicate and dainty and not cumbersome and ugly.

The sandwich is no doubt the favourite lunch time food. For a typical customer, one who is in a rush, one who is hungry, the sandwich is the ideal food. It is quickly made and served, convenient to eat, easily adaptable to many variations. It can satisfy almost any palate and nutritional requirement. Properly made, it can be a very wholesome meal. Sandwich has long been the domain of the pantry department, along with salads and other cold snacks. Preparing sandwiches to order is one of the fundamental skills required in modern food production techniques.

TYPES OF SANDWICHES

1 Conventional, Closed or Lunchbox Sandwich

These consist of two slices of bread with any filling such as meat, fish, poultry, eggs and vegetables. They may be served whole or cut into neat triangles, with or without the crust removed. White or whole meal bread can be used or any other similar bread. They are served in bars, cafes, coffee-shops and snack counters. They are the ideal item for the lunchbox that school children and office-goers carry. The filling is usually heavy and hearty, as the objective is to provide a wholesome and nutritious meal. Or, it could be light and fancy ….the perfect food for the weight watcher.

2. Tea Sandwiches

These are similar to the above but are cut into smaller triangles or in fingers. They are served at afternoon tea, usually with a very light filling. The crust is normally removed so that they look prim and proper like the high society ladies who usually eat them!!!! They will be suitably garnished for service.

3. The Buffet Sandwich

These are similar to the conventional sandwich but are cut into fancy shapes like hearts, diamonds, and ovals, with sandwich cutters. Obviously, there will be a lot of wastage and can only be used when cost permits.

4. Continental or French Sandwiches

Consists of crusty French baguettes slit horizontally, well buttered with a savory filling. It can be garnished with lettuce, slices of cucumber and tomatoes. It can be served whole or cut into pieces so that they can be lifted easily. If left whole, they are referred to as foot longs. In America, they are called submarine sandwiches.

5. Double Decker / Triple Decker and Club Sandwiches

These are extremely popular these days. If you top an ordinary sandwich with another filling and close that with a third slice of bread you get a double –  decker (two fillings, three slices of bread). Similarly, a triple – decker will have three fillings and four slices of bread. A club sandwich will have multiple fillings and multiple slices, all piled up one over the other. The fillings must be substantial and complement each other. There must be a balance in the fillings. The bread in a club sandwich may be toasted or grilled but in a double decker or a triple decker, plain bread may be used as well. These sandwiches are cut diagonally into half for service so that they can be eaten easily.

6. Open Sandwiches

Are technically not sandwiches, as a sandwich needs two slices of bread? But for convenience, they are classified as sandwiches. If the top slice of a sandwich is missing….what do you call it? Half a sandwich a garnished piece of bread. Until a better name is found, we can call it an open sandwich. Open sandwiches are slices of buttered bread on top of which is arranged a variety of toppings. The bread is then trimmed and garnished. They may even be cut into fancy shapes. The bread may be white or brown, toasted or plain. They should not be confused with canapés, which have a variety of different bases. Please remember that sandwiches are not made only to please the eye and look pretty on the platter. They must please the eye….yes, but they must also satisfy the palate.

7. Fancy Sandwiches

Ribbon sandwiches

Checker Board sandwich

Pinwheel Sandwich

Rolled sandwich

Mosaic sandwich

These are a variety of fancy sandwiches which look good when put on exhibition and display. They add a new dimension to a cold buffet presentation.

8. Hot Sandwiches

 

These are hot snacks but are really a hot sandwich. These include:

–         Book Maker  (England)

–         Strammer Max (Germany)

–         Lindstrom (Sweeden)

–         Croque Monsieur/Madame (France)

GENERAL RULES FOR SANDWICH MAKING

1. Soften the butter before spreading.

2. Smooth fillings like fish paste and cream cheese spread easiest at room temperature.

3. Use a palette knife for easy spreading

4. Ideally, the bread should be 12 to 18 hours old. This ensures easy slicing.

5. Butter both slices of the bread being used for the sandwich. It helps to hold the sandwich together

6. Use sliced bread….it is neater and more convenient.

7. If cutting the bread yourself, arrange the bread slices in the order they have been cut.

8. Use sufficient filling. The label should not be the only means of identification of the sandwich.

9. Wrap prepared sandwiches in cling film or in a moist duster in separate batches for easy identification.

SUNIL KUMAR

SIHM ROHTAK

CHAPTER 8: SALADS AND SALAD DRESSINGS

Herba Salata, the Latin equivalent of salted greens, is where the term salad is derived from. This suggests that the earliest salads were mixtures of pickled greens, seasoned with salt. This culinary variation evolved by the time of Imperial Rome into mixtures of greens served with a fresh herb garnish and an oil-vinegar dressing. The 17^th and 18^th Century brought more additions to the humble culinary creation called the salad. Lettuces of various types were used as a base with some type of meat, poultry and mixed vegetables placed on the top. It was in the early 20^th century that Escoffier carried the art of salad making to new heights. The possibilities for salad combinations are limited only by the imagination of the chef. They may include leaf greens, raw and cooked vegetables, fruit, meat, legumes and rice and pasta based salads, to mention just a few.

In many food service operations, salads are the items that are given the least attention and consideration, both in planning and preparation. Chefs often erroneously perceive it as a simple task that needs little or no training. This attitude results in salads of a poor quality. Certain factors need to be considered while planning a salad. These include:

–         Fresh ingredients

–         Attractive plating

–         Proper textures

–         Eye appeal

–         Well balanced flavor

The wide variety of salads makes it difficult to state exact rules for the proper preparation of salads. However, there are some rules of thumb that must be followed.

–         Utilize the freshest ingredients and specially those in season.

–         Light leaf vegetables should be tossed in a dressing just before the service.

–         Pour enough dressing to season; not drown the main ingredient.

–         Use a suitable container to present the salad.

–         Never overcrowd the salad plate.

–         Accommodate the salad within the dish and not on or over the edge.

Today, the salad is considered to be a popular item. It is the favorite of weight watchers and those on a diet. It is also a versatile dish and can be served as:

–         An appetizer

–         An entrée

–         A main course

–         An accompaniment to the main course

–         A dessert

–         On the buffet as part of the salad bar

–         As a sandwich filling

–         As a plate garnish

TYPES OF SALAD

There are three types of salad:

–         Leaf/Simple or Green Salad

–         Compound /Mixed Salad

–         Classical Salads

LEAF SALAD

 

A simple salad is a variety of one or more greens. A mild dressing such as a light

Vinaigrette is used so the delicate taste of the greens is not masked. Various types of greens are now available locally and would include:

LETTUCE:

–   Cos                                            – Oak Leaf

–   Romaine                                    – Ruby

–         Bibb                                           – Roquette

–         Iceberg                                        – Frezie

–         Limestone                                  – Boston

–         Curly                                         – Crisphead

–         Chinese                                      – Butterhead

–         Lolorosso

OTHER LEAFY VEGETABLES:

–         Escarole

–         Chicory

–         Endive

–         Belgian endive

–         Red/white cabbage

–         Spinach

–         Cress/Water Cress

–         Arugula

–         Radiccio

Leaf salads are usually served as an accompaniment to the main course and rarely as any other course.

BASIC PROCEDURE FOR LEAF SALADS:

1. Wash the greens thoroughly in several changes of water.
2. Drain the greens well. Poor draining will result in watered down dressing.
3. Crisp the greens. Place them in a colander in the refrigerator.
4. Cut or tear into bite size pieces.
5. Mix the greens well. Toss gently till uniformly mixed.
6. Plate the salads. Use cold plates please! Not those just out of the dishwasher.
7. Refrigerate.
8. Add dressing just before serving along with garnish. Dressed greens wilt rapidly.

COMPOUND SALADS

 

Are made up of four parts:

BASE: normally one/combination of the above greens. It gives definition to the placement of the salad on the plate. A green lettuce leaf is used as an under liner for the salad. Shredded greens can also be utilized and this will give height and dimension to the plate. The base also absorbs excess dressing preventing it from running around the plate during the presentation and the meal. However, the base is not always necessary. A cole slaw made up of leafy vegetable (cabbage) need not have a base at all. Beetroot salad whose color might run can do without the base.

BODY: This is the main ingredient in the salad and will generally give the name to the salad. The body must be the main ingredient and will be placed on top of the base. The body could be made up of just on ingredient or in some cases, several.

DRESSING:  is used to enhance and add to the taste and flavor of the body. It makes the salad more palate pleasing. The dressing may be tossed with the body of the salad, or served as an accompaniment poured over the salad at the table. The dressing is made up of four parts:

–         THE OIL: This could include plain refined, odorless oil or a more exotic one such as Avocado oil, Olive oil, Sesame seed oil, Walnut oil, Peanut oil, Corn oil, Almond oil & Soybean oil. One could also have flavored oil such as chili oil, herb oil or garlic oil.

–         THE ACIDIC MEDIUM: Is normally vinegar, red or white. However, Lemon/Lime juice, Yogurt (curds), Red and White Wine can also be used. The popular vinegars include Cider Vinegar, Malt Vinegar, Wine Vinegar, Wine Vinegar, Chili Vinegar and Rice Vinegar.

–         THE SEASONING: Would include varieties of salt.

–   THE FLAVOR ENHANCERS: These will include Spice Powders, Herbs,

Garlic, Proprietary Sauces, Fruit Juices & Cream.

CLASSICAL SALAD DRESSINGS:

1. FRENCH: 1 part vinegar: 2 parts oil + salt, pepper, french mustard.
2. ENGLISH: 2 parts vinegar: 1 part oil + salt, pepper, caster sugar, english mustard.
3. AMERICAN: Equal parts of oil and vinegar + salt. Pepper, english mustard and additional sugar.
4. MAYONNAISE: Mayonnaise sauce thinned down with vinegar or lemon juice.
5. VINAIGRETTE: 1 part vinegar: 2 parts olive oil + salt, pepper, english/french mustard.
6. RAVIGOTTE: Vinaigrette + chopped chervil, chives, tarragon, capers and parsley.
7. GRIBICHE: Mayonnaise dressing + chopped gherkins, capers, chervil, taragon, parsley and strips of hard boiled egg white.
8. ACIDULATED CREAM: Fresh cream + fresh lemon juice and salt
9. THOUSAND ISLAND : Mayonnaise dressing + a little chili sauce and chopped red pimento, chives and green peppers
10. LEMON DRESSING: Substitute the vinegar with lemon juice adds oil according to taste plus salt, pepper and preferred mustard.

GARNISH:

Ideally, the garnish will embellish the salad. However, it is not necessary to always have a garnish. Sometimes, if the vegetables are neatly cut and have retained their colors, the salad will look good on its own. Like the base, the garnish is optional.

GUIDELINES FOR ARRANGING SALADS

Perhaps even more than with most other foods, the appearance and arrangement of a salad are essential to its quality. The colorful variety of salad ingredients gives the creative chef an opportunity to create miniature works of art on the salad plate.

1. Keep the salad off the rim of the plate: Think of the rim as the frame of a picture. Keep the salad within the frame. Select the right plate for the portion size, not too large or not too small.
2. Strive for a good balance of color: Pale iceberg lettuce is pretty plain and colorless but can be livened up by mixing in some darker greens and perhaps a few shreds of carrot, red cabbage or other colored vegetables such as peppers. On the other hand don’t overdo it and go overboard. Three colors are usually more than enough. Shades of green give a good effect and too many colors will look messy.
3. Height makes a salad attractive: Ingredients mounded onto a plate are more interesting than that lying flat. Lettuce cups as a base adds height. Often, just a little height is enough.
4. Cut the ingredients neatly: Ragged or sloppy cutting makes the whole salad look unattractive and haphazard.
5. Make every ingredient identifiable: The pieces should be large enough for the customer to identify each ingredient. Don’t pulverize everything. Bite size pieces are the rule. Seasoning ingredients like onion could be chopped fine.
6. Keep it simple: A simple, natural arrangement is pleasant to view. An elaborate design, a contrived arrangement, or a cluttered plate will defeat the purpose.

CLASSICAL SALADS

ARCHIDUC

 

 

AUGUSTIN:

DEMI DEUIL:

EVE:

ELEONORA:

FLORIDA:

FRANCAISE:

GAULOISE:

LORETTE:

LOUISETTE:

 

NICOISE:

RUSSIAN:

RACHEL:

WALDORF:

SUNIL KUMAR

SIHM ROHTAK

CHAPTER 9: NON-EDIBLE DISPLAYS

Although food holds the spotlight in all buffet presentation and the objective of buffet planning must be to achieve visual beauty both in the artistic presentation of each item of edible food and in the arrangement of the many dishes on the buffet table. Nothing heightens the beauty of the buffet more than an out-standing center piece (piece monte) made of ice, tallow or other such materials. The term non edible is used to indicate that the center piece is not meant for consumption along with the rest of the food on the buffet.

The guest should be able to identify the theme of the buffet at a glance, just by observing the non-edible decorations that provide eye-catching background for the presentation. A non-edible decorative display piece should be a work of art, always in good taste, whether the figure is made of ice, sugar, tallow or any other material. The list of possibilities could be divided into:

Artistic Displays

Food Displays

Artistic Displays:

 

1. Ice Carvings
2. Tallow Displays
3. Butter/Margarine Sculptures
4. Salt Carvings or sculptures (Saltillage)
5. Sugar Craft (Pastillage)/Wedding Cake
6. Chocolate Mouldings
7. Fruit and Vegetable Carvings

Food Displays:

These could include

1. Bread Displays
2. Cheese and Wine displays (for a French Buffet)
3. Seafood Displays (for a Seafood Display)
4. Pasta Displays (for an Italian theme)
5. Spice Displays (for an Indian Buffet)
6. Fruit and Vegetable arrangements
7. Suckling pig/ Roast Turkeys/Hams (sometimes with Chaud Froid)
8. Aspic cut outs

ICE CARVINGS

The ice sculpture is the highlight of any buffet, the artistic touch, the focal point. Ice can be carved in any shape, size or figure that fits the theme or occasion.  For example, for Christmas there could be a Santa Claus, for an anniversary, a heart. The essentials for ice carving are.

1. A 100 –300 pound block of ice, 40 inches high by 20 inches wide by 10 inches thick. Blocks like this can be purchased.
2. A pair of ice tongs for moving ends handling the ice.
3. An ice shaver with three to six prongs, used to curve out the details and do the small cutting on the block of ice.
4. An ice pick, used to split the block into smaller pieces.
5. A hand saw, used to remove large cuts of ice or to make rough outlines.
6. Chisels ranging in size from ½ to 2 inches.
7. An electric chain saw, when working with this type of saw, it is important to have the saw grounded to prevent accidents.
8. A good pair of gloves which have metal finger tips to prevent accidents
9. A template, made on graph paper, of the shape of the ice carving that is to be made
10. Salt.

The best temperature for ice carving is 28° F or less. An ice block will melt at the rate of ½ to 1 inch per hour at room temperature.

Such ice carving must have a base that is at least six inches high. In other words, when planning this carving, deduct 6 inches from the total height for the base.  Be sure to draw the template accurately.

If a piece of ice breaks off, dip each broken edge into salt and press pieces back together for a few minutes, the length of time will depend on the size and weight of the broken pieces with the sale added the broken pieces will freeze together and hold.

How to Display the Ice Carving on a buffet

1. The table used for the carving must be sturdy and strong enough to support the weight of the ice.
2. The carved ice block should be placed in a specially constructed metal pan, wider that the base of the carving wooden blocks should first be placed in the bottom of the pan and the carving should rest securely on top of the block.
3. Colored rotating lights and newly designed display units can produce a dramatic effect; this is especially effective when the lights themselves cannot be seen.
4. Colored ice can also produce a dramatic effect
5. The ice sculpture could be placed on a rotating turn table
6. The pan under the ice sculpture can be decorated with a linen cloth, flowers, ferns, or other decorative material.

TALLOW WORK

When deciding on the selection of a pattern for a tallow display piece, it is essential that the display piece chosen match the theme of the food design buffet. It is even more desirable, to select a pattern that may also fit into the décor theme of other buffets at a later date. Creating on eye-catching tallow piece is always time-consuming and should be planned well in advance.

A French restaurant serving a French buffet would add effectiveness to the presentation by displaying a bust of Napoleon or Escoffier or the Eiffel Tower. Such displays can be used over and over, but they should be covered with transparent wrap when not in use as dust tends to stick to them.

To be successful in the execution of a tallow display, it is essential that certain rules be followed. The person making the tallow display should have a photograph or model of the piece o be made. In general, a formula made up in the following proportions work well in tallow displays:

1/3 beeswax

1/3 paraffin

1/3 beef fat

The quantity of fat can be increased if a more pliable and workable mixture is needed, especially if the working area is cool, that is, below 65° F.

A solid structure and base for the tallow piece must be created, especially if the finished piece has to be transported. A wooden base with dowels and a rough structure made of Styrofoam, metal armature, and aluminum foils have been used.

BUTTER AND MARGERINE CARVINGS

Very often in place of tallow, butter and margarine is used to produce center pieces. Margarine is the preferred medium as it has a higher melting point and is easier to handle than butter. An outline of the sculpture is made out of suitable stiff material such as a wire piece, aluminum foil, and strips of wood. This is called the armature and the butter or margarine is molded around it to give the desired shape. Ideally, the work should be carried out in a cool environment such as an air- conditioned room. The advantage here is that the sculpture can be re done if it does not have the desired effect and re started. Also tallow, butter and margarine sculptures can have a re usable value unlike ice carvings. However, care should be taken to in storing these pieces as they tend to attract dirt and dust which will cling and be difficult to remove without damaging the structure. Very often a protective cling film can be wrapped around the sculptures during storage.

SALTILLAGE.

Basic Salt Dough for Sculptures

1 cup cold water

1 cup corn starch

2 cups warm popcorn salt.

Combine the water and cornstarch. Mix well over medium heat, stirring constantly, to a very thick paste. Knead 2 cups of salt into hot cornstarch mixture (for best results use a mixing machine). For brown colour, add some Soya sauce to the water. To make brown point, brown cornstarch to various shades of light and dark brown and mix with water and some gin. When sculpture is finished, use a brush to paint it with the cornstarch mixture.

To create successful sculptures

1. For large salt-dough sculptures, a good solid metal armature is needed to support the weight of the sculpture.
2. Cover the armature with aluminum foil to create desired shape.
3. Cover aluminum foil with thin sheets of salt dough. Dry. Repeat and dry again.
4. Finish details on the third layer of salt dough. Dry and paint with brown cornstarch color or dust with herbs and spices.

WILLY SPRY’S SALTILLAGE

Yield: 5 1b

Ingredients

Cornstarch                                          3 lb

Salt (table)                                          1 lb

Plain powdered gelatin                       6 oz

Boiling water                                  1 ¼ pt

Colorings:  turmeric, paprika, vegetable or confectioner’s color spices, dried herbs poppy or caraway seeds, finely chopped nuts.

METHOD

Dissolve the gelatin in boiling water; make sure it is well dissolved. Use extra heat if necessary, but do not boil. Strain the liquid through cheesecloth or filter paper and let cool.

Place cornstarch and salt in mixing bowl and stir in liquid gelatin a little at a time until you get a smooth paste. When you notice that the saltillage clears the sides of the mixing bowl, it is ready. Add desired colorings. Roll into clear plastic and store in an airtight container.

Saltillage has the same appearance and texture as pastillage. It dries quickly and for some reason tends to crack easily. Do not make large pieces out of this paste unless you have a base; a Styrofoam sculpture that you may wish to cover will do. Any small animals or birds, flowers, mushrooms umbrellas, wheel-barrows, Chef’s hats or other decorations that you already have made out of marzipan or pastillage can also be made of saltillage. The rest is left to the imagination.

FRUIT AND VEGETABLE CARVINGS

Very attractive center pieces can be made by carving various shapes out of fruits and vegetables. Large pumpkins, melons and such vegetables can be used as containers or carved into objects such as boats and ships. The variety in color of vegetables and fruits adds a lot to the eye appeal and the presentation of the center piece. Care should be taken not to use non food items such as pins, staples, toothpicks, drawing pins to hold the arrangement in place. Water can be sprayed so that the arrangement looks as fresh as possible.

SUGAR CRAFT (Pastillage)

 

This could include:

1. Pulled sugar
2. Poured  Sugar
3. Blown Sugar
4. Spun Sugar

Cooked sugar can be used in various forms to provide stunning works of art. They could adorn a dessert buffet.

CHOCOLATE MOULDINGS

Tempered chocolate can be used to make figures which can be attractively arranged to be used as center pieces during festive times like Christmas and Easter. They are also used to adorn the dessert buffet.

SUNIL KUMAR

SIHM ROHTAK

CHAPTER 10: INTRODUCTION TO CHARCUTERIE

 

Charcuterie has come a long way since the medieval days in France, when the term referred to products of the butchers shop. Charcuterie is the art of transforming pork into various other products.  Derived from the words chair and cuit, it literally means cooked meat.

The origin of the process goes back several hundreds of years ago to 1500 BC during the height of the Roman Empire. Sausages became very popular. The Romans enjoyed pork products that were often flavored with pine nuts, black pepper and bay leaves. Sausages were also featured at the fabled pagan banquets and one Christian emperor even went to the extent of having them banned. This of course led to the illegal production of charcuterie, which in turn caused illness, sickness and even death.

In the middle Ages, strict separation between fisheries, slaughterhouses, butchers and prepared meat shops was enforced in order to control disease. Not until the 16thC did the charcutiers, as these cooks were known, legally obtain the right to butcher their own pigs and sell both raw and cooked pork products. Charcutiers were permitted to sell salted herrings during the period of lent, the time Christians have to abstain from meat. As legal restrictions eased and other meats became more abundant and available, charcutiers included them in their repertoire. Slowly, fish and vegetables also showed up in the products.

Charcuterie has come a long way since those times. No longer is it limited to just pork products, but instead, the word is used in a broader sense to represent a method and style of cooking as well as a manner of serving the food. International and ethnic influences have broadened the scope of charcuterie so that today it comprises a wide variety of foods. Savory pies come in all kind of shapes and sizes.  Sausages are now being made out of fish and vegetables. Meats as well as fish and vegetables are stuffed and poached to become galantines or are roasted into ballotines. There are dessert timbales….the gastronomic possibilities are endless.

Charcuterie is one of the most versatile and adaptable cooking methods. It lends itself to an innovative approach to cooking. There is nothing rigid complicated or exact about it. Once you are familiar with the fundamentals, you can invent your own specialties using the ingredients that are available or that are in season at the market. Commercially, making your own charcuterie will help you control costs, assure high quality and serve dishes that are quite out of the ordinary. There are no rules to cooking charcuterie; the only imperative is fresh ingredients of high quality. Charcuterie products can be served morning, noon or night; for breakfast, lunch or dinner and even as snacks with cocktails. They can be served as appetizers or as a main course, a side dish or a snack. Although they are invariably eaten slightly chilled, some could be equally delicious when eaten warm or hot.

SUNIL KUMAR

SIHM ROHTAK

2007-08

 

CHAPTER 11: Forcemeats

 

The term Forcemeat or farce is used to describe the basic mixture that needs to be prepared in order to produce charcuterie products.

The word farce comes from the Latin farcire. A farce or forcemeat is a ground seasoned mixture of meat, game, poultry, fish or vegetables, prepared as a dish on its own or used to stuff other numerous other items such as eggs, meat, fish and poultry, pastry shells and perhaps even pasta. Such dishes are prepared in the Garde Manger.

Forcemeats are used in the preparation of a various cold dishes such as pate, terrines, galantines, ballotines, quenelle, roulade, mousse and mousseline.

Pate: from the old French paste, meaning paste.

Terrine: from the Latin Terra, meaning earth.

Galantine:  from the old French galant,   meaning gorgeous or showy

Also from the old French term galine, meaning chicken.

Ballotine: from the Italian Balla, meaning ball.

Quenelle: from the Alcascian French knodel, meaning dumpling

Roulade: from the French rouler, meaning to roll

Mousse/Mousseline: from the French, meaning froth.

Timbale: from the English Thimble

COMPOSITION OF THE FORCMEAT

Traditional forcemeat/farce is made up of four parts:

1. The Meat   (Primary Ingredient)

2. The Binder

3. Seasoning, Flavoring and Garnish

4. The Additives

 

 

 

The Meat:

 

Consists of three elements:

–  The Dominant Meat (basic meat) which could include veal, game, poultry, rabbit, duck, or even fish. This will provide the dominant flavor and will also name the dish. E.g. chicken liver in a Chicken Liver Pate. These ingredients should be fresh and of prime quality. All bones, skin, sinews and gristle must be removed and the flesh cut up into ½” pieces for grinding. The dominant meat normally accounts for 40% of the meat component.

–         Lean Pork which contributes to the bulk as well as the flavor. This will be about 30% of the meat component. Nowadays, when preparing forcemeat using other varieties of meat, the lean pork can be substituted with another subsidiary meat. For example, in a Lobster Mousse, the lean pork will be substituted with shrimp or some other cheap white fish. The important thing to remember is that the  subsidiary meat should complement the dominant meat

–         Pork fat which gives richness and smoothness to the product as well as for its binding qualities. This too will be 30% of the meat component. Again, other fats such as butter and cream can be substituted in order that the meat and fat complement each other. In the Lobster mousse, cream would be better suited as a fat instead of pork fat.

 

 

The Binding Agent:

To lighten the farce and to give it a finer texture, binding agents are needed. These are typically used in the making of poultry, fish and vegetable farce. Game, veal and pork do have their own binding qualities, with the protein from the meat acting as binding agents. Binding could consist of egg yolks and/or egg whites; fresh bread soaked in milk, cream or stock; thickened béchamel sauce (panada); beurre manié (uncooked butter/flour mixture), blood or even cooked rice.

Seasoning Flavoring and Garnish:

 

Salt is an important part of the forcemeat. It helps to bring out the natural flavors of the other elements. 20 gm of salt / kilo of the mixture are a rough guideline to use. The salt must be evenly mixed to ensure equal distribution. Seasoning should not be extravagant to cover up for inferior quality ingredient. One mistake is to use excessive MSG for this purpose. Flavorings such as herbs and spices give character to the product. The garnish is related to the farce to which it is added. A central garnish – lamb fillet in a lamb farce, strips of ham in a pork farce, or a piece of goose liver I a game farce – provides a visual focal point when the farce is sliced. Garnishes could also be dispersed or interspersed throughout the farce and would include pistachio, crushed peppercorns, diced truffle, capers, gherkins, stuffed olives, mushrooms and similar ingredients which will provide contrast and relief in the mass of the forcemeat.

 

 

The Additives:

Many additives are included in the forcemeat. These include Nitrates and Nitrites of Sodium and Potassium, MSG, Sodium Erythorbate, BHT and BHA, Salt Petre.

These additives will enhance the color, increase shelf life, contribute to the taste and flavor and prevent/delay the fat from going rancid.

 

 

 

 

BASIC GUIDELINES FOR PREPARING A FARCE:

 

The meat being used to make the farce as well as the equipment to grind it like the buffalo chopper or the food processor must be absolutely chilled before use. Such chilling is essential as it facilitates clean grinding of the farce, as opposed to tearing which inhibits the release of the protein which in turn later binds the farce and gives it the correct texture. A sharp cutting blade is also essential.

The process of grinding involves three stages:

–         First the ingredients are coarsely ground through a medium holed plate

–         It is then passed through a small holed plate

–         If the farce is to be ground to a fine textured paste it can be emulsified in a food processor a small amount of crushed ice can be added during the emulsifying stage. This helps to maintain the temperature of the farce during the grinding.

–         Finally, the farce is passed through a sieve to remove any trace of sinew, gristle or skin that might have remained during the grinding.

Remember, that the process may not require all the stages mentioned. For a coarse farce, like that required for a salami sausage, only the first two stages are required.

There are times when the food grinder is not available. In that case, the meat can be placed in the freezer for 30 to 60 minutes, rendering it partially frozen. This is done so that when it is placed in the food processor, the interaction of the blade against the partially frozen meat poultry or fish results in it being cut up, much the way it would if put through a meat grinder.

 

 

Herb and Spice Seasoning & Flavoring Blends:

Garde Manger chefs will develop their own blend of seasoning mix for the different products they make. The degree of strength will vary from a mild, light blend for fish and seafood roulade to a medium blend for pork and veal terrine to a heavy blend for a game pate. Ideally, the herb and spice blend should be of a dry nature and finely powdered so that it blends in well with the farce. However, some chefs prefer to use the fresh variety, especially of herbs. If the herbs are fresh, they need to be chopped very finely.  Spice blends are a matter of personal choice.

Seasoning/Flavoring Blend   I

(All Purpose mixture, from Escofier’s Le Guide Culinaire)

5 parts bay leaf

4 parts clove

4 parts cinnamon

3 parts coriander

3 parts ginger

3 parts mace

6 parts nutmeg

5 parts Black Pepper

5 parts White Pepper

1 part cayenne pepper

3 parts thyme

Seasoning/flavoring Blend II

(Good for Fish Farce)

7 parts thyme

6 parts White Pepper

4 parts nutmeg

3 parts dill seed

3 parts bay leaf

3 parts clove

3 parts coriander & 3 parts cumin

Seasoning/flavoring Blend III

(Good or Meat and Poultry Farce)

3 parts White Pepper

2 parts clove

2 parts tarragon

1 part all spice

1 part ground nutmeg

1 part each cumin, thyme, paprika, and marjoram

Seasoning/flavoring Blend IV

(Good for Game and Rich Meat Farce)

7 parts juniper berries

4 parts cumin

3 parts basil

3 parts clove

3 parts bay leaf

3 parts garlic

3 parts ginger

3 parts nutmeg

3 parts black pepper

3 parts white pepper

2 parts marjoram

TYPES OF FORCEMEAT

 

There are five primary types of forcemeat:

Campagne (Country Style)

Straight Method

Gratin Style

Mousseline Style

5/4/3 Emulsion forcemeat

 

Campagne is also called the country style forcemeat. It is the earliest style that was used and is the precursor of all modern versions. It is generally made out of pork. This is probably due to the historically low expense and small amount of land required to raise pigs. Pork fat is also incorporated. The farce has a dense, coarse texture, a characteristic which resulted from the lack of sophisticated equipment in the early days when it was first developed. The earliest forcemeats were chopped with two knives giving the coarse texture that is associated with country style forcemeat today. Another character resulting from the time it was developed is that of being highly seasoned. Due to the virtual non – existence of refrigeration techniques or other preservation methods, the heavy seasoning covered both the flavor of the tainted meat and acted as a preservative for the forcemeat. The seasonings commonly used include onion, garlic, black pepper, juniper berries, bay leaf and nutmeg. Country style forcemeat is usually a combination of coarsely ground farce and a smooth ground farce so that chunks of meat are visible in the mass of the mixture.

 

Straight Method forcemeat is more refined, having a finer, less dense texture. As culinary preparations and equipment improved, the capability of producing a more refined style of forcemeat was possible. Here, any type of dominant meat can be used. It is normally, veal, duck, rabbit plus pork. White poultry and fish are rarely used here. Ideally pork fat especially jowl fat is used.

The finer lighter texture and more delicate seasoning of this forcemeat are indicative of the refinement of many culinary preparations as technological advances were made. It was no longer necessary to mask the flavors of the meats. It was possible to simply enhance it. The common flavors used are shallots, wine, brandy and all spice. Better grinding techniques meant that the meats were binding better on their own and additional binding was not required.

In some cases a panada can be used to achieve a lighter texture and color in the farce.

 

Gratin Style is the name given to the forcemeat that is obtained from pre cooked meats. This style is used extensively to make pates. In some cases the cooking will entail only lightly searing and browning of the meats (hence the term gratin), at other times, the meat may be completely cooked before grinding and pureeing. The contemporary interpretation of gratin style is an expansion of the definition of farce given by Escoffier. His definition refers to any forcemeat based on liver, needed to be pre cooked before grinding. Most types of meat can be used in gratin style forcemeats. However, as in the case of the straight method, poultry and fish is normally not use. Often, the liver of veal and pork are used. Pork back fat and jowl fat are also incorporated. The texture of this type of forcemeat is very fine and should be properly ground till smooth.  The density of this type of farce is slightly lighter than a straight method due to the varying degree of binding power that is lost because of the pre cooking. Panada is avoided it will soften the already delicate texture. To compensate the loss of binding power, extra eggs are added. A different flavor is achieved here as a result of the browning and pre cooking. A nutty flavor develops. The result is very smooth, delicately flavored forcemeat.

 

 

Mousseline style is the fourth type of farce. The most distinctive characteristic of this method is the type of fat that is used in its preparation. The use of cream as the source of fat, combined with the processing of the components to an ultra fine consistency, results in an extremely light and smooth product. This product is in sharp contrast to that produced using the harder types of fat. Mousseline –style forcemeats are made using lean white or light meats and fish. Chicken, rabbit, shellfish, sole and trimmed lean pork fillet is ideal to use. Although a panada is not needed for additional binding for this type of forcemeat, one is occasionally added to achieve a lighter consistency. Due to the delicate nature of the meats and the cream, the seasoning to should be very delicate. Care must be taken not to overpower the flavors of the components of the forcemeat.  Shallots, ground white pepper and white wine can be used.

Note: The term mousseline forcemeat is often improperly abbreviated as mousse in everyday use. This is a source of much confusion. A mousse is a mixture of fully cooked and pureed basic ingredients bound with gelatin and fat and lightened with an aerator like egg white.

5/4/3 Emulsion Forcemeat is used extensively in making sausages like frankfurters, bologna and knockwurst. It I a commercial mixture and hardly ever used in a hotel kitchen. Its name is derived from the ratio of the components of the forcemeat:  5 parts of meat, 4 parts of fat and 3 parts of ice.  5/4/3 emulsion forcemeat can be made with almost any kind of meat. Fish is not considered suitable for this kind of forcemeat. Pork jowl fat is the common fat used; the term emulsion automatically indicates the texture, which should be a perfectly smooth paste. Processing of the components of the forcemeat with ice, results in a very strong emulsion of the meat and the fat when it is cooked. The resulting blend has a moderate density. A variety of binders can be used to assist in the binding and water retention. Panada is not capable of providing the type of binding required. Therefore, non-fat milk powder is preferred. Sodium caseinate and phosphates can also be used. Since this is used commercially, the seasoning and flavoring will vary from one manufacturer to the other.

SUNIL KUMAR

SIHM ROHTAK

2007-08

CHAPTER 12: PATE AND TERRINE

Perfumed with freshly chopped herbs and aromatic spices, a melange of succulent ingredients distinguishes pates and terrines, as some of the most delectable of food preparations. They can be basic or fancy, inexpensive or costly, they can be made in a variety of shapes and sizes – small, large, oval, round, rectangular and even cylindrical. Terrines are cooked, stored and even served in the same container which may be crafted iron, enamel, porcelain and glass but which originally was pottery or earthen ware from which the terrine got its name (terre meaning earth in French).

PATE:

The term pate refers to forcemeat baked in a crust, usually in a rectangular mould, something like a loaf tin. In French it is called pate en croute. Simply defined, a pate is a paste of finely chopped or pounded or pureed seasoned meat, which generally is liver. There are a few classical dishes like the pate campagne from France that is not baked and really should be referred to as terrines.

Among the wide variety of ingredients used in the making of a pate are liver, a variety of meats, truffle and of course seasoning. Goose and duck liver, bring a characteristic flavor to the pate. Chicken livers are the most common these days but sheep and calf liver are often used as well. Truffle will make the pate special. Pates can be prepared in advance, stored and then used as and when required. The meats used in a pate are first marinated and at times pre cooked. The livers must be handled carefully and the gall bladder, veins and blood clots if any must be removed. Ideally, the livers must be soaked in milk for 24 hours (refrigerated). They are then drained and seasoned. Sometimes, a small quantity of bread crumbs is added to the farce to lighten the mixture. Non fat dry milk (powder) could also be used. It adds a creamy texture to the mixture. A meat glaze or aspic could also be substituted as a binder and will contribute a rich gelatinous quality to the farce. For that extra fragrance, a small quantity of wine or brandy could be added at the last minute before combining and processing.

For the crust, dough must be prepared and the following recipe has proved to be good

PATE DOUGH:

Flour           1 kg

Butter         150 gm

Margarine   200 gm

Baking powder 15 gm

Water          250 ml (approx.)

Vinegar       25 ml

Eggs            3

Salt             2 tsp

Sift the flour and the baking powder.

Rub the shortening and the butter into the flour

Combine and add the remaining ingredients into the flour.

Mix until the dough is formed and knead till smooth.

Shape the dough into a flat rectangle. Refrigerate overnight.

Note: pate dough can also be made out of yeast and brioche dough

Assembling the pate:

Lightly oil the mould.

Roll the dough and line the mould leaving an overhang on the four sides.

Carefully press the dough into the corners of the mould.

Refrigerate the lined mould for at least an hour.

Fill the mould with the prepared farce ½ inch short of the top edge.

(The forcemeat should be placed in the mould in several layers. Use a palette knife to press into place. This will reduce the risk of air pockets in the finished product. There may be a central or dispersed garnish)

Fold the overhanging dough over the top of the mould and the seal.

Carefully cut two small holes from the top and provide chimneys for the excess steam to escape during the cooking.

 

 

Cooking the Pate:

The cooking takes place in two stages

Browning stage:  Cover the surface with foil and place the mould in a pre heated 475°F oven for approximately 10 minutes. Remove from the oven and allow to rest for 15 minutes. The surface should show hints of brown.

Cooking stage:  Uncover the pate and lightly egg wash the top of the pate

Place in a pre heated 375°F oven until an internal temperature of 170°F has been reached. Temperature can be taken through the chimney. Make sure the thermometer reaches the center of the pate.

Finishing the Pate:

The pate is not complete when removed from the oven. It must now be filled with aspic. First, allow the pate to cool to room temperature. This will allow for the fat and the juices to be re absorbed into the meat. Through the chimneys, carefully pour in good quality aspic. The aspic will slowly be absorbed into the meat and will fill the sides (where the meat has shrunk), and any crevice and air pockets that might have formed. Allow the pate to chill overnight before removal and slicing.

TERRINE

Terrines are the closet cousins of the pate. The terrine vessel is an oblong earthern ware mould. As mentioned earlier, this was the original vessel that was use and this is how terrine got its name.  However, nowadays, enamel, cast iron, clay, porcelain and china vessels are common. Since the terrine takes its name from the vessel and not the mixture used, the variety of types is limitless. The forcemeat used in a terrine is usually uncooked and is slightly coarser compared to a pate. Various force Meats can be used and layered one over the other. Care should be taken that the variety of forcemeats used complement each other. The binding used in forcemeat for a terrine is normally eggs or gelatin.

 

Pre preparation of a Terrine:

The forcemeat for the terrine must first be prepared. This may be more than one type and can be layered. The garnish which can be chopped herbs is also prepared. Line the mold with strips of pork fat or bacon.

Assembling the Terrine:

Fill the terrine half full and ensure that there are no air pockets. If a central garnish is being used, place this in the middle and top with the other half of the forcemeat. If several types of forcemeat are being used, then layer them one over the other. Top with additional layers of pork fat or streaky bacon. The fat/bacon keeps the terrine moist during the ensuing cooking process. Small bunches of fresh herbs may also be placed on the top of the terrine.  Bayleaf, rosemary and thyme are ideal for this purpose.

 

 

Cooking the Terrine:

Assemble a water bath to cook the terrine. A wire rack can be placed at the bottom of the pan on which the mould can rest. Place in a preheated 325°F oven. The temperature of the water should be 190°f before placing in the oven. The water should come up to ½ inch below the level of the forcemeat in the mould.

The temperature of the water should be maintained at 170-175°F throughout the cooking process. The terrine is done when the internal temperature reaches 140°F. remove from the water bath and cool at room temperature for 30 minutes.

Pressing Terrines:

A cooked terrine is pressed or weighted after it is cooked. This involves placing a weight on the surface of the terrine. A metal plate that fits into the top of the terrine is placed on top and a medium weight is placed on the plate. This is then refrigerated overnight. It helps to compact the terrine and thereby improve the texture and facilitates easy slicing of the terrine.

Storing Pates and Terrines:

 

Refrigerate meat pates and terrines to ripen their flavor. Covered and refrigerated, they will keep for a week. Terrines will actually keep much longer if a layer of melted fat/butter is poured over the surface. Avoid the freezing of meat pates and terrines. It alters the texture of the meat and also the pastry. Well-chilled pates and terrines will slice the best. However, they taste best closer to room temperature. After slicing, allow to stand a while. This allows the subtleties of the flavor to emerge.

Serving Pates and Terrines:

Pate in pastry is sliced and served as a starter along with a plate salad.

Terrine can be served sliced or scooped out with a spoon. Terrines and pates can both be featured on a cold buffet presentation.

SUNIL KUMAR

  SIHM ROHTAK

  

CHAPTER 13: FOIE GRAS AND TRUFFLE

Foie Gras

Foie Gras, if literally translated, means fat liver. But the liver is no ordinary liver, nor is it just fat!!! Pate de Foie Gras is the resulting product of an extremely complicated process involving the liver of goose and its recipe dates back to the 17^th Century.

The geese is placed in pens and given plenty to eat. The feed consists of beetroot, artichokes, carrots, corn, cooked potatoes, maize, oats and beans along with plenty of fresh water. This specially crafted diet contains a high quantity of vitamins and at times the bird needs to be forcefed. After 2 to 3 weeks, the goose liver swells slowly and when the farmer/breeder thinks it is sufficiently ready, the bird is killed and the liver removed.

Once the goose livers have been selected, they are sent to the manufacturers of foie gras and in some special cases, directly to chefs who make their own foie gras. Generally, foie gras can be bought either fresh or tinned/canned.

In the processing of foie gras, the bile is first removed and the livers are then carefully sorted and graded. Some livers may be ideal for steaming and others for baking. Those which are suitable for light steaming would quickly become dry if they are cooked in the oven. The color, texture and firmness are also important.

The network of nerves are removed from the livers which are then put to soak in water and are then drained and seasoned. The livers are stuffed with truffle and then steamed or baked in the oven. Livers of lesser quality or the wrong color (the right color is shell pink) are pulverised into a mousse and can be used as a meat spread for sandwiches. The livers can be packed in tins or in earthen jars.

The delicate nature of Foie Gras necessitates particular care in serving. It should be served cold and at the beginning of the meal with a crisp white wine. Reisling, Champagne, White Burgundy or even Bordeaux of good vintage is ideal. Red wine should definitely be avoided as it will detract from the taste instead of sharpening it.

Foie gras can be garnished with aspic jelly and with nothing else. Foie gras is best presented on the plate in the shape of shells, scooped out of the jar/can/terrine with a teaspoon. It can also be served in slices. Certain types of foie gras are surrounded by a layer of white fat. The connoisseur will remove this, knowing that it has been used only to ensure its perfection and to preserve it.

Foie gras has been around for ages and has been consumed for centuries. It was made traditionally in the region of Alcase in the town of Strasbourg in Eastern France. In fact, the correct name should read Pate de Foie Gras de Strasbourg.  Legally, all foie gras from the region must contain a maximum 75% goose liver and a minimum 5% truffle, to be accorded the name. Like Champagne and other wines, an appellation or controlling body governs the production, manufacture, sales, pricing and marketing of the Foie Gras.

From 1762, the Marechal de Conrades who resided in Strasbourg had a head chef Jean Pierre Clause whose ability in the culinary arts was gratefully acknowledged by the guests of the Marechal. One day, in order to please his master, he put before him Pate Marechal, a dish he had just invented. Marechal thought it so magnificent that he ordered another one to be made and sent it to Versailles to the Kings palace. The court liked it so much that the Marechal was granted an estate.

Nowadays, it is chiefly the French cities of Strasbourg and Toulouse which are renowned for their Foie gras

 

TRUFFLE

Truffle is known by several names such as Black Diamond and Children of the Gods. The truffle is a fungus fruit that matures underground. However, not all underground fungi are truffle. The real story of the growth of truffle is a strange one. The truffle is the fruit of a widely spreading system of colorless, microscopic branching threads that penetrate the soil for distances that are measurable in yards. These threads known as hyphae, touch the furtherest tips of the roots of trees and shrubs. The interaction of roots and hyphae forms a compound structure part plant and part fungus. However, this cannot further develop without vitamins and minerals. When the hyphae have absorbed enough material from the soil and plant, they proceed to develop fruit. The fruit which develops from a knot of hyphae is called a truffle. Nowadays, specially trained dogs and hogs are used to detect truffle. Truffles vary in color from a smooth white surface to a dark brown or black. They are usually rounded, although some may resemble ginger. The interior of the truffle has elaborate rolds or chambers. The flavor of the truffle can vary considerably. Some have a touch of garlic in its flavor.

In France, the region of Perigord less than 50 miles from the Bordeaux region is well known for its crop of truffle. In Italy, Piedmont in the Umbria region produces almost the entire crop of Italian white truffle. Geographically, truffle will occur near the wine growing regions. Surprisingly, a good year for wine means a bad year for truffle and vice verca.

The composition of truffle is 72% water, 8-10% protein, 4% fat, 13-15% carbohydrates and 2-5% mineral traces.

Contrary to popular belief, the white truffle, unlike its black cousin should never be cooked as it may loose its fragrance if subjected to heat. Fresh truffle should be firm to touch and not spongy. They impart a distinct aroma when fresh. Because of their exorbitant prices, their usage in the kitchen and the garde manger is fairly limited

SUNIL KUMAR

SIHM ROHTAK

        CHAPTER 14: SAUSAGE

Sausage is any meat that has been comminuted and seasoned. Comminuted means diced, ground, chopped, emulsified or otherwise reduced to minute particles by mechanical means.

A simple definition of sausage would be ‘the coarse or finely comminuted meat product prepared from one or more kind of meat or meat by-products, containing various amounts of water, usually seasoned and frequently cured.’ In simplest terms, sausage is ground meat that has been salted for preservation and seasoned to taste. Sausage is one of the oldest forms of charcuterie, and is made almost all over the world in some form or the other. Many sausage recipes and concepts have brought fame to cities and their people. Frankfurters from Frankfurt in Germany, Weiner from Vienna in Austria and Bologna from the town of Bologna in Italy are all very famous. There are over 1200 varieties world wide

Sausage consists of two parts:

–         the casing

–         the filling

 

THE CASING

Casings are of vital importance in sausage making. Their primary function is that of a holder for the meat mixture. They also have a major effect on the mouth feel (if edible) and appearance. The variety of casings available is broad.

These include: natural, collagen, fibrous cellulose and protein lined fibrous cellulose.  Some casings are edible and are meant to be eaten with the sausage. Other casings are non edible and are peeled away before eating.

NATURAL CASINGS:

These are made from the intestines of animals such as hogs, pigs, wild boar, cattle and sheep. The intestine is a very long organ and is ideal for a casing of the sausage. The intestines are flushed clean, especially from the inside and soaked in a solution of KMNO4 for a period of 2 hours at 10°C. Sinews, blood vessels and fat clinging to the insides of the casing must be removed. Natural casings should not be over handled as they may puncture. They should be refrigerated at all times. Natural casings are available in Australia, New Zealand, and South America where cattle are reared on a very large scale. Casings are a by-product of the meat industry that is what these countries specialize in.

Use of natural casings is considered by many professional sausage makers to have many advantages:

–         They are semi porous and permit deeper smoke penetration.

–         Natural casings absorb flavors and release fats better

–         Generally, they hold their shape better and do not burst during cooking.

–         Natural casings are edible and need not be peeled before eating.

–         They have a natural color and have a better appearance.

Hogs casings are the most commonly used. Sheep casings are the highest quality available. Beef casings are also popular. Almost all casings are salted before they are packed. Natural casings need to be protected from extreme variations in temperature. The ideal storage temperature is 40-45°F

COLLAGEN CASINGS:

These are edible and are not synthetic casings. They are made from the hide of cattle. Collagen is obtained from the corium layer that is situated just under the skin of the animal. The fat, flesh and hair are removed from the hide and it is split into two layers by special equipment. The hair side of the hide is used in the leather industry. The flesh side (corium) is used to make collagen casings. The material is first ground, and then swelled in an acidic medium. It is then sieved, filtered and finally extruded into casings.

The advantages of collagen casings are that they can be manufactured in the sizes that you require both diameter and length. Their consistent diameter means that they are uniform and aid portion control. They are also stronger and are preferred while using machines in the commercial manufacture of sausages. They are ideal for smoking of sausages and require no special pre preparation and storage. Moreover, they are clean and sanitary.

FIBROUS CELLULOSE CASINGS

These are by – products of the food processing industry. Cellulose and fiber is extracted from the husk, skin, peels, pips and seeds of the fruit and vegetables during the processing stage. These are processed further to make casings. These types of casings are also referred to as peel-able cellulose. The fiber adds to the strength of the casing and enables them to handle high temperatures.

PROTEIN LINED FIBROUS CELLULOSE CASINGS

A protein lining is often added to the inside of the above type of casing. These casings are ideal for the dried sausages. The protein lining causes the casing to shrink as the meat is cooked or dried so that it retains the shape of the sausage. Used mainly for dry or semi-dry sausages, they come in a red color (salami) or clear. They need to be soaked in water before stuffing, as the protein tends to stiffen during storage. Sometimes, the casing needs to be soaked in vinegar or even liquid smoke. This makes it easier to peel off the casing when the finished product is sliced.

Besides these, there some other types of casings that are also used in the sausage making industry. Plastic casings have recently become popular. They are cheaper, stronger and uniform in size. However, they need to be removed before the product is served. Caul fat, a membrane like lining of the stomach, is also used as a casing to make the flat sausages, crepinette. The membrane is networked like a spider web, with streaks of fat. Caul fat is ideal to wrap items of uneven sizes like the loukanika (patty like Greek sausage) and the crepinette.

 

 

THE FILLING

The filling of the sausage is made up of two parts:

–   The meat component

–         the non meat component

Meat Component:

 

A variety of meats are used in the sausage making industry. Each type provides a particular flavor, texture and color in the product.

Lean meats make up the largest proportion of the meat component providing the dominant character of the product. The color, flavor, texture and appearance of the product are determined by these meats. Pork is by far the most common and popular meat used in sausage making.  Beef is also becoming popular of late, because of its excellent binding properties as well as its deep red color. Veal, lamb and poultry are also being used in certain products of late.

 

Pork fat adds to the taste, flavor and the texture of the forcemeat.   Jowl fat is the most commonly used product in charcuterie. It is obtained from the cheek of the animal.  Normally, not more than 30% of the forcemeat is fat.

 

Variety meats are the offal of the carcass and can be added into the forcemeat in the production of sausage.  Variety meats used include heart, kidney, tripe, liver and tongue. These meats have a low binding power and if a lot of them are added into the forcemeat, you would require additional binders in the mixture.

NON MEAT COMPONENT:

Non meat ingredients are food item, which are added to the filling before stuffing. They enhance the flavor and the color, slow or prevent bacteria growth, act as a preservative and increase the volume and bulk of the mixture.  There are six types of these additives: water, curing agents, curing accelerators, sensory enhancers, stability enhancers, and extenders and binders.

WATER is usually added to the sausage mixture during the blending stage. It improved the mixing and helps to extract the proteins from the meat. It is used in all sausage mixtures.

CURING AGENTS are necessary to inhibit the growth of bacteria (especially clostridium botulinum – an anaerobic bacteria which can cause death) and improve the shelf life. They also help to improve, fix and retain the color of the forcemeat. The two common curing agents are sodium nitrate and nitrite. Nitrite is used in cured, cooked or smoked products. Nitrate is used in dried sausages.

CURING ACCELERATORS such as ascorbic acid, sodium erythorbate and citric acid are used in cured, cooked and fermented products. As their name suggests, they speed up the curing process.

SENSORY ENHANCERS are a variety of items that are used to enhance the flavor, smell, color, feel and mouthfeel.

Salt is used in all sausage products for the enhancement of flavor and as an aid in the extraction of protein from the meats.

Sweeteners (both nutritive and non-nutritive) are often added to the forcemeat. Non nutritive sweeteners such as saccharin and sorbitol add sweetness and aid in peeling. Nutritive sweeteners such as cane or beet sugar, dextrose and corn syrup are also used.

Flavorings for sausage include spices, plant, vegetable and milk protein, yeast extract and even mustard flour. These add flavor, taste, increase the volume and act as binders. Colorings for sausage meat can be natural as well as artificial. Artificial colors are used a lot in sausage production. Chefs do not recommend these. Natural colors can be obtained from red peppers, saffron, turmeric and caramel. These will add not only color but also flavor. The use of natural colors is recommended wherever possible.

Smoke, both natural and liquid smoke contributes to the taste and flavor of the product. Use of too much liquid smoke will tend to make the product bitter. Liquid smoke also tends to fade on storage.

Flavor enhancers are products, which bring out the flavor of the other ingredients, yet have no flavor of their own. The one most commonly used in the kitchen is MSG, mono sodium glutamate. This is a natural product but must be used sparingly. MSG and nucleotides and other flavor enhancers are often used in mass production of sausage but are not widely used or common.

Other sensory enhancers include bacterial cultures, enzymes, phosphates and acidulants. They serve a variety of purposes including flavoring, softening of the tissues, juice retention and are used only in the mass commercial production of sausages and not in the hotel kitchens.

STABILITY ENHANCERS are used in sausage making to protect the flavor of the product, to slow down mold growth and to extend and bind the product.

EXTENDERS AND BINDERS are usually either animal based, fermentation based and cereal grain based. Gelatin, stock and non – fat dry milk are the animal based ones used most often in the kitchen. Fermentation based extenders and binders involve the introduction of specified types of microorganisms into the forcemeat. As these grow, they create favorable changes in the sausage. Cereal grain based ones include oats, wheat, barley, corn and rye. These products are also used to extend the volume – this is often termed as the filler. These items are far more popular in the commercial mass production of sausage rather than in specialized kitchen preparations.

 

 

TYPES OF FILLINGS USED FOR SAUSAGES

 

There are primarily four types of fillings that are used in the production of sausages.

1. Coarse minced forcemeat – This forcemeat contains tender and lean meat as well as fat in the mixture. The ratio is normally 3 parts of meat to one part of fat. The mixture is coarsely ground and the proportion gives optimum quality. Only good grade of meat and fat is used, as the mixture is easily identifiable. Salami is a good example of this type of a filling.
2. Cutter pulverized forcemeat – All types of sausage containing finely ground forcemeat including frankfurters and cocktail sausages come under this group. 5 parts of meat and 3 parts of fat are the normal ratio. Second grades of meat can be utilized, as they are not identifiable, being ground into a fine mixture. Meats from older carcasses can also be used.
3. Combination forcemeats – are a mixture of the above two types. One part of coarse forcemeat and two parts of cutter pulverized forcemeat are normally use. Pepperoni and chippolatas are examples of sausages that use this type of forcemeat. Both good and inferior quality of meat can be used. This makes it more commercially viable as well.
4. Chunky forcemeat – In this type of a filling, the meat and fat are left in chunks. Three parts of meat to 1 part of fat are used. This type of a filling is used for the spicy South American sausages like the chorizo, which have predominant Portuguese and Spanish influence. The meat and the fat are dried before they are filled into the casing.

Once the forcemeat is prepared, it is ready for filling into the casing. It may be done manually or, sausage filler may be used. Sausage filler is a machine something like a mincing machine, which has a nozzle with changeable diameters. The rolled up casing is fitted onto the nozzle and the machine is started. The casing then un – rolls as it fills up. A stapling machine cum stapler then separates the sausages into links and seals the ends. Heat treatment is used in the sealing process.

Besides meat, which is the traditional filling, nowadays a host of other ingredients are also used. Poultry seafood, vegetables, lentils and soybean are being introduced.

There are five varieties of sausages that are available in the commercial market.

–         Fresh sausage  (e.g.: Brokwurst)

–         Cooked sausage (Mortadella)

–         Cooked-smoked sausage (Bologna, Frankfurters, Berliners)

–         Uncooked-smoked sausage (Kielbasa – the Polish sausage, Mettwurst)

–         Dry/semi dry sausage (Salami)

SOME FAMOUS SAUSAGES:

 

1. ANDOUILLETTE   French sausage made of pork, tripe and calf mesentery.

2. BERLINER  from Berlin, made of pork and beef, flavored with salt and

Sugar

1. BIERSCHENKEN  a German sausage containing ham or ham fat + peppercorns and pistachio

1. BIERWURST a German beef and pork sausage flecked with fat and smoked.

1. BLACKPUDDING/BLOOD SAUSAGE there are many versions of this sausage or pudding, made out of pigs blood. The British one has oatmeal. The German version is called Blutwurst and the French one is known as Boudin Noir. The Spanish call it Morcilla, the Irish Drisheen and the Italians, Biroldo.  They are usually sliced and sold.

1. BOCKWURST a delicately flavored, highly perishable German white sausage consisting of fresh pork and veal, chopped chives parsley, egg and milk.

1. BOLOGNA There is a number of versions of this popular Italian sausage. It usually has a mixture of smoked pork and beef. The English version is called Polony.

1. BOUDIN BLANC  unlike boudin noir, this is a fresh sausage, made of pork, eggs, cream and seasoning

1. BRATWURST a German sausage made of minced pork / veal and spiced.

1.  BUTIFARA a Spanish pork sausage flavored with garlic and spices – comes from the Catalonian region of Spain.

1.  Cambridge an English sausage made from pork and flavored with herbs and spices.

1.  CERVELAT   the name originated from the Latin word for brains. Nowadays it contains pork and is seasoned with garlic

1.  CHORIZO is a Spanish and South American spicy sausage made of pork and uses small casings. Some Chorizos are fresh but others are dried or smoked. Longaniza is a Portuguese version.

1.  CREPINETTE a general term for a small minced meat sausage – some contain lamb; others pork. They are coated with breadcrumbs and fried.

1.  CUMBERLAND SAUSAGE an English sausage made of coarsely minced pork with pepper.

1.  EXTRAWURST a lightly smoked beef/pork sausage from Germany.

1.  FRANKFURTER an ancestor of the ubiquitous hot dog, it is made of lean pork and is very finely ground. Vienna sausage is a small cocktail frankfurter

1.  HAGGIS is a Scottish sausage served on festive occasions. It is mad from the offal of sheep and oats. It is stuffed into the inner lining of the stomach – the thymus and needs prolonged slow cooking.

1.  KABANOS is a Polish sausage made out of minced pork.

1.  KALBWURST a German veal sausage, flavored with pistachio nuts.

1.  KATENRAUSCHWURST German sausage made of smoked pork, dark skinned and firm.

1.  KNOBLAUCHWURST a German garlic sausage.

1.  KOLBASA/KIELBASA the first the Russian version and the second, the Polish. Both words men sausage. Made with beef and pork.

1.  LAP CHEONG a Chinese sausage of chopped pork, soy, cereal and paprika.

1.  LIVERWURST/LEBERWURST a German liver sausage of which there are many kinds. Made of pork and pork or veal liver and may even contain truffle.

1.  MERGUEZ a spiced sausage from North Africa made from goat or mutton flavored with chili and cumin.

1.  METTWURST a German spreading sausage of pork or beef.

1.  MORTADELLA a bland Italian sausage from Bologna, made of pork and flavored with pepper, pistachio or coriander. Ready to eat, it is served sliced

1.  OXFORD SAUSAGE English sausage containing veal, pork, beef suet, herbs and spices.

1.  PEPPERONI an Italian sausage made of pork and beef.

1.  SALAMI there is a vast range of salami sausage available. These include: Birnenformige, Edel, Land and Netz from Germany                                    Alesandre, Calabrese, Cotto, Felinetti, Genoa, Napoli, Milano, Easter Nola, and Toscana from Italy Arles from France. There are varieties from America, Holland, Denmark and Hungary as well. All are made of uncooked meat, which may be pork, beef or a mixture of the two and variously flavored. Salami may be air dried or smoked or both. It is ready to eat, thinly sliced and eaten cold. However, chopped and sliced salami finds its way into many Italian dishes. Salamini are smaller versions of the usually large Salami. Kosher salami is made out of only beef and flavored with garlic, mustard, juniper and coriander.

1.  SALSICCIE is an Italian sausage very often homemade and flavored with garlic and peppercorn.

1.   SAUCISSON are large French sausage, air dried or smoked. Some are coated with dried herbs.

1.  STRASSBURGER a liver and veal sausage containing pistachio nuts.

1.  TEEWURST is like mettwurst- a spreading sausage. Made of pork or pork and beef. Spiced and lightly smoked.

1.  TOULOUSE SAUSAGE from Toulouse in France made of pork and pork fat flavored with pepper and sugar. It is an essential ingredient of several French recipes especially the cassoulet of Toulouse

1.  WIESSWURST a mildly spiced German sausage made of pork and veal.

1.  WHITE PUDDING or Boudin Blanc – it is made of white meats and will include pork, cream, eggs and spices. Eaten hot.

1.  ZAMPONE an Italian sausage from Modena, where the meat is stuffed into the skin of the leg of pig trotters.

1.  ZUNGENWURST  a large German smoked sausage made of pork fat, pork tongue and sometimes liver and blood

SUNIL KUMAR

SIHM ROHTAK

 

CHAPTER 15: GALANTINE BALLOTINE ROULADES   & PARFAIT

GALANTINE

Galantine, by classical definition, is de boned poultry, including rabbit, and sometimes game, which is stuffed with forcemeat. The term galantine comes from the French word galant, which refers to the elegant nature of the presentation of the product and which means gorgeous or beautiful. Some books refer to the origin of the dish to the term geline or galine, which was the old French term for chicken, which was the preferred meat that was used for   galantine

Chilled and glistening, the galantine contains flavorful forcemeat often with abstract or concentric patterned with fruit, nuts and even truffle at times. Cylindrical in shape, it has a natural casing of the skin of the poultry that was used It is coated with chaud – froid and then glazed with aspic jelly to enhance its eye appeal. Galantines are always served cold either as an entrée or as part of the cold meat platter on the buffet. Sometimes, they can also be served as an appetizer with a plate garnish of a salad.

PREPARATION:

Classically, full sized birds (capons) weighing 1.2 to 1.5 kgs are used for preparing chicken galantine. The preparation of galantine is divided into three stages

– Pre preparation

– Assembly

– Cooking

In the first stage it is necessary to de bone the meat that is being used. This must be done with precision to maintain the quality, and yield of the meat and also to retain the appearance of the skin. The meat is then seasoned lightly and a sprinkling of gelatin acts as the binder.

To assemble the galantine, the forcemeat must be placed/ spread over the meat carefully and then the garnish placed neatly. The garnish maybe either a central garnish (hard boiled egg or an inlay of different strips of meat) or it may be a dispersed garnish consisting of bits and pieces of nuts, olives, capers, brunoise of vegetable. The placing and rolling must be done carefully and with precision. If not the result will be a poorly formed galantine and will have an uneven texture.

The rolling is done with the help of muslin cloth or aluminum foil and is then secured.

The correct cooking method used for galantine is poaching. The stock can be made from the bones of the carcass obtained when de boning. Boiling will lead to a coarser texture and drier meat. It is important to monitor the temperature of the stock and the galantine itself with the help of a meat thermometer. The cooking time will depend upon the type of meat used as well as on the quantity that is being poached. The temperature of the stock should not exceed 190°F. Once the internal temperature of the galantine has reached approximately 160 – 170°F the cooking can stop. Allow the galantine to cool in the stock itself, preferably overnight. If cooled and left in the gelled stock, the galantine will keep for a week.

Presentation:

Traditionally, the galantine will be covered with a chaud-froid sauce and then glazed with aspic jelly. This can be used as a centerpiece on the buffet or on the cold meat platter. Alternately, it can be sliced unadorned and served as a salad or an appetizer with cubes of aspic jelly and a salad. The aspic can be prepared out of the poaching liquid or made separately with stock.

Chicken Galantine

Chicken                1.3 kg

Streaky Bacon      120 gm

Ham                     120 gm

Seasoning/herbs

Brandy                 3 tbsp

Gelatine                2 tsps

Garnish:

Cooked diced ham         100 gms

Cracked peppercorns a few

Blanched pistachio          30 gms

De bone the chicken, leaving it in one rectangular piece along with the skin.

Save the supremes of the chicken, and mix with the ham and bacon fat.

Chill in the freezer for about an hour and then process along with the seasoning and brandy and herbs.

Spread the forcemeat over the chicken; place the garnish on top.

Roll tightly with the skin and then wrap in a muslin cloth or aluminum foil.

Prepare a stock with the bones and then poach the galantine.

Cool in the stock itself preferably overnight.

Coat with Chaud froid sauce and decorate suitably

 

BALLOTINE:

The terms Galantine and Ballotine are often confused. Both are similarly prepared, but they are cooked and served differently. The ballotine is also boneless meat that is stuffed and rolled into a ballot or bundle. Like the galantine, they are also poached, but may also be baked or braised in their skins and served hot as entrees.

The ballotine can be considered the smaller relative of the galantine. A ballotine is prepared from a boneless leg of poultry that is stuffed with forcemeat.

The ballotine is an excellent method for using the leg portions of poultry when the breast portions have been used for other purpose. The legs of the poultry are removed leaving the skin and meat intact. Forcemeat is stuffed into the pocket that forms when the leg bone is removed. Although the ballotine is baked or braised or even roasted, they are usually served cold after coating with chaud – froid and aspic.

ROULADE :

Comes from the French word ruler (meaning to roll).The only criteria for a food item to be called roulade is that it should be rolled.

The term roulade can be applied to contemporary products prepared in a manner similar to a galantine yet do not fully satisfy the definition of a classical galantine.

An example of a roulade can be a flank steak that has been butterflied, pounded, spread with a sausage paste and then rolled like a Swiss roll, secured and cooked. Or, it could be a large fillet of fish, flattened lightly and spread with a tuna/salmon paste and then rolled and secured. Roulades can be poached, baked, braised or even roasted and can be served hot but usually are presented cold. The varieties of roulades are unlimited.

PARFAIT:

This is the French term that means perfect. In culinary usage, it refers to two distinct and different products. One is a frozen mousse like dessert served in a tall glass. The other is a savory terrine, which, by its delicacy, is almost near to perfection. This is the one that we refer to here. A savory parfait makes use of vegetables, fish, shellfish or poultry. It is distinguished by its very fine texture and is made of a puree of the ingredients that is lightened by egg whites and cream, which is then moulded and then poached.

SUNIL KUMAR

SIHM ROHTAK

CHAPTER 16: MOUSSE MOUSSELINE AND QUENNELLE

 

The terms mousse and mousseline are often used inter-changeably and confused with each other.

Mousse

The cold mousse is a delicacy that is sure to delight the eye and please the palate as well. A mousse can be defined as a mixture of cooked ingredients, pureed and held together with gelatin, veloute sauce, mayonnaise or aspic jelly, then enriched with cream and sometimes flavored with wine. The mousse is always served cold, very often attractively moulded.

A mousse is made with cooked meat, fish, poultry and nowadays, increasingly with vegetables. The method of preparation is the same for all recipes, whatever the ingredients used. The ingredients are first pureed, and then mixed with a binding agent like gelatin. Then cream and seasoning are blended in. Mousse is often served on the cold buffet and at times for luncheon.

BASIC MOUSSE

Cooked Meat                 450 gms

Chicken, fish, rabbit, boneless

Reduced Aspic Jelly       200 ml

Thick Bechamel/Veloute          60 gms

Double Cream                150 ml

Salt and Pepper             to taste

Dice the meat and process to a fine paste in a blender

Add the bechamel/veloute, aspic and the seasoning.

Fold in the whipped cream

Spoon into moulds and chill

n.b. the moulds could be coated with aspic jelly

LOBSTER MOUSSE

Cooked Lobster Meat   400 gms

Aspic Jelly                     150 ml (concentrated)

Bechamel                       60 gms

Double Cream                150ml

Salt and Pepper             to taste

Process the lobster to a smooth paste. Mix with the bechamel and aspic

Fold in the whipped cream and the seasoning. Pour into a mould and chill.

ASPARAGUS MOUSSE

Asparagus Spears (cooked) 450 gms

Chicken Veloute               100 gms

Lemon Juice                                1 tsp

Aspic Jelly                         200 ml (concentrated)

Double Cream                    150 ml

Salt and Pepper                 to taste

Puree the Asparagus; add lemon juice, veloute and the aspic jelly

Fold in the cream and the seasoning.

Various flavored mousse can also be used as a filling for various items such as barquettes, vol –au- vents and cucumbers, tomatoes and mushroom caps.

MOUSSELINE

Mousseline is made out of a combination of uncooked meat that are pureed and bound with egg white and sometimes cream. They are set by cooking.

Normally, the forcemeat for a mousseline is made out of fish. The raw fish is processed along with egg white to a fine paste. Seasoning and a little cream can be incorporated towards the end of the procesing. The mixture may be flavored with herbs like dill and parsley. It is then spooned into moulds like a timbale and then covered and steamed until the mixture has set. Mousseline can be served hot or chilled in the refrigerator and then serve cold. Fish like salmon, trout, sole and other light white fish are normally used. Shell- fish like crab, shrimp, prawn and lobster are also popular. Mousseline is a good way to use p trimmings and left overs while pre- preparing fish. Besides fish, other ingredients like ham can also be used to make mousseline. Small timbales of mousseline can also be used as an accompaniment of the main course and also to decorate the cold meat platters that are set out on a buffet presentation.

QUENELLES

Quenelles are products that are made out of forcemeat as well. The forcemeat in this case is fish and is made out of a raw meat mixture. The forcemeat is similar to that used to make a mousseline. The fish is processed to a fine puree along with egg white which acts as a binder. Sometimes, bechamel sauce is also used. Seasonings, herbs and sometimes, light spices can also be added.  Two tablespoons dipped in hot water are used to shape the quenelles. These oblong shaped quenelles are then poached in fish stock for a couple of minutes until they are cooked.  The stock is then used to prepare a sauce like a Fish Veloute that will accompany the quenelles.

A variety of different fish can be utilized to prepare quenelle. Shellfish is not very popular to make quenelles, but fleshy fish like cod is ideal. Quenelles can be served hot with a suitable sauce as the fish course on the menu. Quenelles also feature as a starter for luncheon or even dinner

Cod/Sole Quenelles

Shallots, minced  30 gms

Cod/Sole              450 gms

Unsalted Butter    100 gms

Egg Whites           4 no

Cream                  200 ml

Thick Bechamel    100 gms

Salt and Pepper    to taste

Fish Stock            400 ml

White Wine          a dash

Place the fish and the shallots in a food processor. Puree roughly.

Add the bechamel and cream along with the egg whites and process till smooth.

Add seasoning and butter.

Dip two spoons in hot water and then shape the quenelles.

Poach in fish stock flavored with wine.

When cooked, drain on absorbent paper and serve with an appropriate sauce like sauce americaine.

SUNIL KUMAR
SIHM ROHTAK

 

CHAPTER 17: ASPIC AND GELEE

Aspic and Gelee play an important part in the preparation of many cold dishes that are created in the Grade Manger. The glistening coating or the sparkling bases help to highlight the dishes that are being presented. Proper presentation and application of aspic and gelee are essential to assure maximum impact for a large piece of meat or fish.

There is a certain amount of confusion related to the term ‘aspic’ and ‘gelee’ and very often they are used inter changeably and the same confusion prevails when the terms ‘aspic’ and ‘aspic jelly’ are used. Aspic, Aspic jelly and Gelee are three different items and we will make an attempt to distinguish the three.

A Gelee or jelly in English is a gelatinous meat or fish stock. A Gelee becomes an aspic jelly when it is clarified. The word aspic is used to refer to a combination of cold meats, fish, vegetables or eggs, which are set in an aspic jelly in a decorative mould. When thoroughly chilled, the arrangement is de molded onto a service platter and perhaps surrounded with aspic jelly croutons.

Aspic Jelly must always be crystal clear and of a light golden (amber) color. The quantities of gelatin used in the aspic jelly should be of the correct proportion so that the jelly, when set, will neither be too rubbery, nor too light in consistency. Moreover, the aspic jelly provides special protection for cold dishes. A display of poultry, fish, game or similar ingredients when coated with aspic jelly will keep its freshness and original flavor when covered with aspic jelly. The making of fresh aspic is an elaborate process and in the modern kitchen is fairly time consuming.

It is possible nowadays to purchase aspic powder and the results are acceptable especially if time is of the essence, and does not allow for the preparation of fresh aspic jelly

 

Classical Method:

The classical method of preparing an aspic jelly is to make a stock with the addition of more collagen rich products. In particular, these would include pork skin, calves feet, knuckle joints and shank bones. There are two major steps in the classical preparation of aspic jelly. First comes the preparation of the stock and this is followed by the clarification. This type of aspic jelly depends solely on the amount of gelatin present in the bones for gelling.

In short, the preparation of aspic consists of the following steps:

1. A stock must be made using gelatinous items such as pork skin, calves feet, knuckle joints and shank bones.
2. The stock must be reduced first and then clarified with aromatic vegetables, wine and seasoning.

 

The Quick Method:

The quick method of making aspic jelly is to add commercial gelatin to a ready consomme. This method is very practical for a busy kitchen that uses a limited amount of aspic jelly in its day to day production. The flavour and clarity of this type of an aspic jelly will depend upon the quality of the consomme.

The Commercial Powder:

Commercial powders are no doubt, the quickest method of producing aspic jelly. Commercially, savoury aspic jelly is available in dry powder form and more recently in sheet form as well. They save time and effort n the part of the chef but have a lower quality of flavor since little or no meat is used in the manufacture. It is recommended that their flavour be fortified. The premium brands are of fairly good quality. They are useful when small quantities of aspic jelly are required periodically and must be re constituted according to the instructions of the manufacturer.

The Addition of Wine:

A lot of chefs recommend the addition of wines to aspic jelly to enhance the flavor and the taste of the product. If used, the wine should be added when the aspic jelly is still liquid. This will ensure that the full aroma of the wine is preserved. The recommended wines are port, Madeira, sherry, Marsala and crisp white wines.

Characteristics of Good Aspic Jelly:

Aspic Jelly can be graded on the following parameters

Flavor

Tooth

Clarity

Colour

The flavour of an aspic jelly should be intense enough to make the mouth water. Yet, it should not be so strong so as to over power the flavor of the main ingredient of the product. There are three aspects to the flavour of the aspic jelly. The first is the depth of character. This comes from the proper preparation of the stock. The flavour should not be watery and weak. It should be full bodied and robust. Seasoning is another area. The aspic jelly needs to be properly seasoned, and here we are primarily talking salt. The flavours of the ingredients need to be released. And lastly, there is the matter of acidity. Slightly elevating the level of acidity will serve to accent and enliven the flavours already present. This can be done by adding wine, lemon juice or a flavoured vinegar. However, adding acid must be done with care. Remember, acid can interfere with the gelling of the aspic jelly and alter the strength of the gel.

Tooth is the density or the elasticity of the jelly. The jelly should be firm enough to hold the desired shape, yet, once it is in the mouth, it should dissolve immediately. The jelly should not be rubbery or chewy.  There are two factors which determine the mouth feel of aspic jelly. First is the ratio of gelatin in the jelly. The other is the service temperature of the jelly. Aspic jelly must be strong enough to allow clean slicing, yet delicate enough to offer a good tooth. The best way to achieve this is to slice the product as soon as it comes out of the refrigerator and then allowing the slices to warm up slightly, softening the gel, before service.

Aspic jelly should be absolutely crystal clear.

The range of colors in aspic jelly lie between the rich amber almost brown colors that can be used for game, to a nearly colorless one for fish. Additional tomes of red can be obtained and achieved depending on the wine used in the preparation.

Handling and Storing Aspic Jelly:

Aspic Jelly is a potentially hazardous food, an ideal environment for the growth of bacteria. It is high in moisture content, high in protein and comes from an animal source. In order to prolong its shelf life and to ensure its wholesomeness, car must be taken in storing prepared aspic jelly.

Use only clean sanitized containers for storage. Once the jelly has set, handle it as little as possible. This will help minimize the growth of bacteria. Allow the jelly to set without stirring. When it sets as a single block, it seals itself exposing only the top surface to contamination. Once set, the gel should be covered. Cooling of the aspic jelly should be achieved rapidly.

 

Uses of Aspic Jelly:

1. To coat showpieces such as whole turkeys and hams.
2. For Aspic sheets, Aspic mirrors and Aspic cut outs. Decorative center pieces can be made using colored aspic.
3. To fill cavities in Pates.
4. To line moulds for cold buffet presentation.
5. To glaze whole terrines and galantines and items coated with chaud froid.
6. To prepare aspic croutons which can be used to garnish cold platters or even added into salads
7. Chopped aspic, which can be used as a base to present a variety of cold meats on the buffet.
8. To glaze canapés, zakuski and other hors d’oeuvres.

Gelee also has its uses in the kitchen. As explained earlier, gelee is stock that has been reduced and cooled down to a gelatinous consistency. It can be used to enrich soups, sauces and gravies. It can also enhance the taste of stews and sauces. Gelee can be used to glaze cold meat products to prevent them from drying out during the long presentation times on the buffet counter.

SUNIL KUMAR

SIHM ROHTAK

CHAPTER 18: CHAUD – FROID

Chaud – froid translated literally means hot – cold. This name refers to the fact that the sauce is cooked and is applied hot, but then chilled and served cold. The high gelatin content of the sauce makes it possible to apply it to an item while still warm and flowing. As the sauce cools, it gels and adheres to the product. It gives a smooth, pristine surface and seals the product from the air. Chaud – froid is a sauce that is applied to a product and is never served as an accompaniment or used to cook an item in like other sauces.

Galantines, timbales, terrines, whole or smaller joints of poultry and ham are some of the products that can be coated with a chaud – froid. The purpose of coating items with a chaud – froid is:

1. Protection of the item from the air while it sits on the buffet.
2. The sauce acts as a background or a canvas on which to decorate.
3. The chaud – froid is an adornment itself.
4. The sauce can complement the flavor of the coated item.

TYPES OF CHAUD – FROID

The two primary methods of preparing Chaud – froid are the classical and the contemporary methods.

THE CLASSICAL METHOD:

The classical method calls for the use of Béchamel or Veloute. This is reduced with a stock, suitable for the product that needs to be coated. This reduction is then fortified with a suitable aspic jelly and cream.

THE CONTEMPORY METHOD:

A modern variation of the sauce is prepared without a base of the roux. The result is a sauce, which has a less starchy mouth feel. The method is also faster to prepare.

VARIATIONS:

Chaud – froid can be made in a variety of colors. Only natural ingredients must be used to obtain the colors using the basic colors. For a brown chaud – froid, replace the cream with a reduced jus.  A green chaud – froid can be made by using spinach puree. Red chaud – froid needs paprika plus tomato puree. Carrots, red peppers and even saffron are used to create a variety of colors.

APPLYING THE CHAUD – FROID

There are a series of steps involved in the application of chaud – froid.

1. Preparing the item for coating

–         Items to be coated should be well chilled. This helps to adhere the sauce to the surface. Chaud – froid will run off the surface of a warm item before it can set.

–         The surface of the food to be coated should be smooth and trimmed of any rough edges. It is not possible to create a smooth finish to a product if the under surface is rough and jagged.

–         Surface grease must be removed before the coating of chaud – froid is applied. The coating will not stick to a greasy surface. If there is a skin attached to the product, it should be removed. This will ensure that the fat and the grease are also removed.

–         The item to be covered should be blotted/dabbed dry. This will allow better adhesion of the sauce.

1. Tempering the Chaud – Froid

Chaud – froid sauce should be tempered before applying. Once the item has been properly prepped, the sauce may be tempered. This involves bringing the temperature of the sauce, either by heating or cooling, to a point that will allow the best and easiest coating. Gelling takes place at around 85°F. Normally, the closer you can maintain the sauce to this temperature without it getting too thick, the more evenly it will coat. In the ideal situation, it should take only 2 or 3 coats for a smooth and glistening finish.

If the sauce is too warm, it tends to wash over the item leaving only a thin layer of the sauce. If extremely warm, it might even melt the previous layers that have already been applied.

If the Chaud – froid is too cold and thick, it will not form an even layer. The sauce will form lumps and might even leave air bubbles on the surface. The sauce will not coat the item smoothly, because it sets too quickly in runs.

A sauce that is tempered properly will   be easily controled, it will give a smooth and even coating and it will make the application of the coating easier and more efficient.

c. Ladle Method or Dipping Method?

There are two ways to apply a Chaud – froid sauce. It can either be ladled onto the product r the item to be coated can be dipped into it. The ladling method is suitable for large joints or pieces of meat. Smaller items are more evenly coated by dipping. Also, unevenly shaped items are more easily coated by the dipping method. In each case, it is advisable to apply more than one coat of the sauce to give an even appearance and a smooth complete finish. Whichever method of coating is used, it is essential to refrigerate them between each coat and before the final trim.

1. Trimming

Trimming is the final step in preparing the item for decoration. Carefully remove the item from the pan in which it was coated taking care not to rip the product away. The item should be cut away with the help of a palette knife being run around the base of the product. Preferably, dip the knife in hot water first. Line up the trimmed chaud – froid on a clean and fresh tray.

At this point, they are no longer items or products….they are now Chaud – froids. They now need only to be decorated before they can be set out on display.

 

1. Decorating the Chaud – froids

The Chaud – froids can now be decorated tastefully with a variety of food items. There are many choices available. Aspic cutters can be used to punch out a variety of shapes out of vegetables. These may be applied in pleasing patterns such as geometric shapes, floral or abstract.

A more natural, pleasing effect comes from using foods in their natural shapes. Capers, caviar, chives and slices of olives are a few examples. Each component must be dipped into warm aspic jelly and placed onto the surface of the chaud – froid. Avoid dripping excess aspic jelly onto the surface. These droplets of aspic are difficult and almost impossible to remove and can make the most beautiful designs look sloppy. After the decorated chaud – froids have been chilled; they are glazed with a single coat of well-tempered aspic jelly. This will protect the surface of the chaud – froid that could become dull and dry looking. The final glaze of aspic will keep the chaud – froid looking sparkling and fresh.

QUALITY INDICATORS FOR CHAUD – FROID

The quality of a chaud – froid coating has a major effect on the overall quality of the finished product. The quality of a chaud – froid is judged according to flavor, tooth, color and appearance.

1. Flavor – The flavor should complement the dish.
2. Tooth – The chaud – froid should have a very delicate tooth. As it melts in the mouth, it should have a silky smooth texture, similar o that of well made veloute or béchamel sauce.
3. Color – Chaud – froid can be made in various colors. However the colors should originate from natural ingredients. Avoid using artificial colors, instead, pastel shades are the best.
4. Appearance – The appearance should be neat and clear-cut, smooth and shiny and free of air bubbles. The thickness of the coating should not be more than 3/16-inch and the thickness of the glaze 1/8-inch thick.

Handling & Storage

Chaud – froid sauces can be cooled and stored. Reheat gelled chaud – froid sauce over a hot water bath to avoid scorching.

COLLEES

Collees are chaud froid sauces using mayonnaise, sour cream, heavy cream or a combination of these as their base. Collees are often used with fish and other light items. Combine three parts of mayonnaise, sour cream or heavy cream with one part of strong aspic jelly. Use and treat like normal chaud – froid.

SUNIL KUMAR

SIHM ROHTAK

 

CHAPTER 19: MARINADES    CURES    AND   BRINES

 

MARINADES

A marinade is a seasoned liquid with various aromatics in which meat, poultry, game and even vegetables are steeped. Marinades are made up of the following components:

1. Oil – could be olive, peanut, salad or plain refined oil. Flavored oils such as garlic oil, chilli oil and herb flavored oil can also be used. The oil in the marinade helps to prevent moisture loss.

1. Acid – A whole range of acid products can be added into the marinade. Citrus fruits, vinegars (plain and flavored), lemon juice, yogurt, red and white wine are generally used.

1. Aromatics – such as herbs, spices, proprietary sauces.

1. Seasoning – primarily salt, sea salt, black salt, garlic salt, rock salt and grain salt.

The function of a marinade is

A. to add flavour and taste to the food.

1. To act as a tenderizer and break down the connective tissue (this is done by the acid in the marinade.
2. To act as a preservative.

When only their flavor is intended, the aromas can be tied in a sachet to be removed after their flavor has been released. All marinated meats must be dried properly before use. Wet meats will not brown properly.

The length of time for marinating depends on several factors

1. The type of meat or food stuff. Beef will take longer than chicken to marinade. Also the cut of meat is important. Tenderloin will need very little marinating time compared to the rump.
2. The size of the item. A leg of pork will take longer than the leg of chicken
3. The temperature. Foods marinade best at room temperature. However, at times refrigeration will be required if the item is being kept overnight. In any case, fish has to be marinated at refrigerated temperatures.

Some marinades are cooked, others are uncooked.  A cooked marinade, because it is heated, allows the aromats to release their full flavor. Raw marinades are ideal for long term periods. In both cases, the marinating should be done in non corrosive containers such as glass or stainless steel. Avoid plastic and aluminum.

Storage:

A cooked marinade is best stored under refrigeration, and has a long shelf life. Uncooked marinades should be prepared for instant use. If necessary, these should also be refrigerated.

BEER MARINADE

Beer            450 ml

Lemon juice            30 ml

Garlic (crushed) eight cloves

Shallots      a few (chopped)

Coriander   a few sprigs (chopped)

Red Chilli   3-4

Cumin powder 1 tsp

Salt             a pinch

Black pepper        a pinch

Combine all the ingredients and blend thoroughly.

COOKED MARINADE

Carrots       100 gms

Shallots      50 gms

Peppercorns 10-12

Cloves                  2-3

Parsley stalk 4-5

Thyme        a pinch

Rosemary   a pinch

Bay leaf      1-2

Water                   1 liter

White wine 500 ml

Vinegar       50 ml

Oil              100 ml

Combine all ingredients except oil and simmer for an hour. Cool & add oil.

SZECHWAN MARINADE (for grilling)

(For grilling)

Soy Sauce     150 ml

Water                     ¼ cup

White wine   100 ml

Garlic                     6-8 flakes

Ginger paste   15 gms

Peppercorn     1 tbsp (crushed)

Red chilli flakes1 tbsp

Star Anise     1

Sesame oil    15 ml

Brown Sugar   30 gms

Combine all the ingredients and heat in a saucepan for 10 minutes.

Allow to cool before use.

CURES

Curing is a process of surrounding meat, fish or poultry with salt. The salt contains curing agents and is called curing salts. Curing is a method of preservation and the process dehydrates the meat and thereby preserves it.

The salt is the most important part of the composition. It inhibits the growth of the bacteria, yeasts and molds. Salt also add flavor. Common salt (NACL) makes up 94% of curing salts. The other 6% are the curing agents, which include:

–         Nitrates and Nitrites of Sodium and Potassium. These control the growth of botulism

–         Salt Petre which is a nitrite and reacts with the pigment in meat and gives it a pink color. Notice the color of Ham.

–         Sugar will reduce the strong flavor of salt, lowers the PH variance, and it add flavor and taste

–         BHT and BHA are two anti oxidants which retard the onset of rancidity of fat. If the food to be cured has a high fat content (bacon), these are required.

–         Sodium Erythorbate  is also a preservative

–         MSG is a flavor enhancer.

–         Spices and herbs which contribute to the taste and the flavor.

There are dry cures and wet cures.

Dry cures are those which are applied directly to the food. Dry curing is a prolonged process and the cure needs to penetrate into the food. The thickness and the weight of the food need to be considered. When ready, the excess cure is rinsed off.

A Wet Cure is when the curing salts are added to a brine solution. The process is much shorter as due to osmosis, the penetration is much faster.

BRINES

A wet cure is also called brine, although brine literally means a salt solution.

Brining is also a method of curing and preservation and can be achieved by any of the following methods:

–         Steeping

–         Injection

–         Spraying

In steeping, the food item is immersed in the brine solution for a period of time, turning over occasionally to ensure even brining.

Injection involves a brine pump wherein the brine is injected directly into the muscle fiber thereby reducing the time it takes to achieve curing/salting.

Spray brining is when the brine solution is sprayed by injection at several points in the muscle at the same time. This method is even faster than the injection method.

Salting and Pickling Brine

Meat contains about 75% water in the form of inter and intra cellular liquids distributed all over the tissues. These liquids contain several substances such as mineral salts, proteins, amino acids and lactic acids. When meat is in contact with heavily salted brine, an osmotic exchange occurs between the meat and the brine. During this exchange, the meat absorbs some of the brine and the brine receives some of the meat substances. This process of a two way exchange is very slow and almost never complete.

 

The PH of the Brine

The alkalinity/acidity factor of meat that is to be salted is of extreme importance in obtaining a good result. The ph factor is highly influenced by the carbohydrate in the meat. If the ph (acid) is low, it is good for salted meats such as ham and bacon. They have less tendency to develop bacteria, which cause the spoilage of meat. Meat with a relatively high ph (alkaline) is ideal for cooked salted meats such as sausages, cooked ham, pate and galantine. They retain the soft pink color that is ideal for presentation. Meat having a relatively high acidity will take on a darker color.

The Sugar in the Brine

Within the recent years, the technique of sweet salted products has started to become popular. It is important to add a small amount of sugar, preferably brown to the brine for a milder taste. Sugar also acts as a meat tenderizer during the marination.

The Water

It is the main ingredient. Water has great importance in the composition of the brine. For optimum results, water should be very clear, free of pollution and low mineral content. Hard waster should be avoided and is not recommended in the making of brine solutions.

The Salt Petre (KNO3)

The old brine formula consisted of salted water aromated with herbs and spices. However, the presentation and the appearance was not appetizing and the meat rather difficult to slice and kept breaking into small pieces. In order to avoid these inconveniences, it was found that the addition of a small proportion of salt petre in the brine would solve these problems. The meat changed from an ugly grey – brown to a pleasant pink color. It also held well together so that it could be sliced properly.

The Aroma and Spicing of the Brine

 

Brine should never have a strong or bad odor. On the contrary, it should give a pleasant smell and an appetizing aroma to the meat.

Storage of Brine

Brine should be stored in non corrosive containers such as steel, enamel, glass. Avoid aluminum and plastic. Fix a tap to the base of a brine container so that it can be drained easily. The strictest rules of hygiene must be applied to ensure that bacteria growth is minimised. Do not use bare hands and put pre washed meats into the brine. Brine can be used up to 4 times.

Method of Mixing the Brine

– Heat the water to boiling point, but it is not necessary to keep it boiling.

–         Add all ingredients except the spices and the herbs.

–         Skim the top of the liquid.

–         Stir frequently to cool down the brine and dissolve the ingredients.

–         Strain through a tammy.

–         Tie the aromats in a sachet and add to the brine the next day.

–         Start to use 24 hours later

–         Add old brine, if available to the new one.

–         Check the density with the salinometer/brinometer

–         Skim the white scum which forms on the top from time to time.

SUNIL KUMAR

SIHM ROHTAK

CHAPTER 20: HISTORY OF BREAD

GIVE US THIS DAY OUR DAILY BREAD………

BREAD!!!!…….A word of many meanings, a symbol of giving, one food that is common to so many countries….but what really is bread????

The Hungarians have a saying that bread is older than man is. More than 12000 years ago, primitive people made flat breads by mixing coarsely ground grain and water and placing these cakes in the sun to bake. Later, bread was baked/cooked on heated rocks or in the ashes/embers of the fires.
It was the Egyptians who are credited with using a starter of wild yeast from the air that was kept and mixed with the dough to create a leavened product. Legend has it that a slave in a royal Egyptian household forgot about some dough he had made and kept aside. When he returned, it had doubled in size. Trying to hide the mistake, the dough was punched down furiously and baked. The result was lighter bread than anyone had ever tasted.

The ancient Greeks had over 50 kinds of bread. The government built public bakeries and ovens for every ones use and were popular places to meet the neighbors. The Romans continued the idea of the public bakeries. They also required that every baker put an identification stamp on their loafs. In Roman times, grain was ground with millstones and the finest flour was sifted through silk sieves.

 

CHAPTER 21: BREAD

Good food needs good bread and to make good bread one needs to understand the components (ingredients) that are used in bread making, and their functions. The basic ingredients are Flour, Salt, Yeast and Water.

Before we go on to discuss the different components of bread, let us first list the different types of dough.

Bulk Fermented Dough: This is the process that most bakers use to prepare bread. Flour and salt are blended with yeast and water and mixed to smooth clear dough. The dough is then covered to prevent drying out and a skin forming, and then giving a period of bulk fermentation. Here all the ingredients are mixed at once and allowed to ferment. The dough is then knocked back (de gassed) after about two thirds of the fermentation has taken place and then kneaded to encourage further yeast activity. In addition, to equalize the dough temperature. When the fermentation is complete, the dough is weighed off into loafs/rolls. The total fermentation can vary from one to twelve hours, depending on the recipe.

No Time Dough: This process speeds up the fermentation process by adding an improver that contains chemicals that would naturally be produced by fermentation, given a little more time. Flour, Yeast, Salt and water with the improver are blended into a dough, but the mixing is continued for almost double the time. Until the gluten is developed sufficiently. It is preferable to use a machine rather than mixing by hand. When mixing is complete, the dough is ready for scaling (weighing). A little extra yeast is added in recipes using improvers, as the quick fermentation does not allow the yeast to grow to its normal levels. As this process does not allow time for the gluten to mellow properly, about 4% extra water must be added to compensate. The extra water will increase the yield, which should pay for the improver. No time dough is ideal for those kitchens with limited time, space and facilities. Improvers also assist prolonged quality maintenance. Improvers also help make reasonable quality bread that has less gluten (weak flour).

Ferment and Dough: This process is meant for heavily enriched dough’s, to allow yeast to become accustomed to the high amount of fat and sugar, which have been added, and which will slow yeast activity. In the first stage, the ferment yeast is blended into a thin batter and fermented with about 20% of the flour mentioned in the recipe and with all the water. Fermentation depends on the yeast content. It is best fermented in a prover or in similar conditions. The first ferment is then blended with the rest of the flour, salt, fat and perhaps milk powder to form a dough. This is the second or the dough stage and is bulk fermented for roughly the same time as the ferment. The dough can then be scaled.

TEMPERATURE

It is important to maintain the ideal dough temperature, which controls the speed of fermentation. Even for basic bread dough, it is necessary to be exact to get the best from the raw material. The best temperature for fermentation is between 25°C and 28°C. Above 32°C, fermentation is rapid but gets progressively weaker. Under 24°C, fermentation is slow. As water temperature can be readjusted, it is the medium that controls the temperature of the dough, determines the water temperature and the rule of thumb is the doubling method. Double the required dough temperature, take the temperature of the flour and subtract that from the above number. The result is the required water temperature. If the dough is required at 28°C, and the flour temperature is 18°C, then 2×28=56, 56-18=38. Therefore the water temperature should be 38°C. Water is essential to bread making to hydrate the insoluble wheat portions forming gluten. Dissolve the salt, sugar and soluble proteins and form an elastic dough. Water has a marked effect on the speed of fermentation – a thin batter fermenting faster than a tight dough. The water content in dough will vary according to the water Absorption Powers (WAP) of various flours.

THE COMPONENTS

 

SALT – good bread needs salt to offset the blandness and bring out the flavors present. It is also necessary to stabilize the gluten, help retain the moisture and control the fermenting yeast, which in turn will affect the crumb or texture of bread and the crust color. Fermentation is too rapid in dough with too little salt, which checks the growth of yeast so more sugar is converted to gas. Because the gluten is also weakened, it offers less resistance to the gas expansion, leaving too much volume and loose crumb texture. The bread lacks brightness and the flavor is insipid. Too much salt seriously retards yeast activity. Excessive amounts will stop fermentation. With the yeast activity slowed down, there is a corresponding of the tightening of the gluten resulting in a smaller volume. At worst, the result is a heavy, rubber like mass with a taste of excessive salt.

YEAST – is a living organism of the fungal family of plants, which changes sugar into CO2 (carbon di oxide), alcohol and other by-products. The gas is caught up in the gluten network, which aerates the dough. The second function of yeast, equally vital to producing quality bread, is to assist the ripening or mellowing of the gluten in the dough, so that when the item is baked, the gluten is in a condition, which gives evenly to the expanding gases and at the same time retains them (gases). For fermentation to occur, yeast needs a source of glucose (a simple sugar). Small amounts of glucose and fructose in the dough are fermented directly by the yeast. Other sugars and carbohydrates are converted to glucose by enzymes in the flour. Yeast must be in a good condition to work efficiently. It should be cool to the touch and a creamy color. If it is dark ad of a soft sticky consistency, with an unpleasant odor, then it should not be used. Small quantities can be kept pressed into a small bar and stored in a cool place. Yeast works best between 25C and 28C. Above this, the fermentation is rapid but gets progressively weaker as the temperature increases until 55C to 60C, when yeast is killed. Between 23C and 25C, yeast works slowly, till at 25C, fermentation stops. It should never be mixed with dry salt or sugar or dispensed in a strong solution of either, which will kill the yeast. As a living organism, it can never be dissolved in liquid.

FLOUR – there are two basic types of flour used for bread making, whole meal and strong white flour. Whole meal flour contains whole-wheat grains, with nothing added or taken away during processing, Strong with flour has higher protein content and therefore more gluten than soft cake flour. Whole meal flours have a higher water absorption rate than white flours so the dough may be stickier. Extra enzymes in the bran coating of the grain speed up the dough ripening so the dough temperature should be a little cooler to slow down the fermentation. Because the physical and chemical changes in the dough are more rapid, whole meal dough needs shorter fermentation.

GLUTEN – Without gluten in the dough, there could be no bread. Gluten is developed in bread during the manipulation (mixing) of the dough, when two proteins – glutenin and gliadin combine in the presence of moisture (water) to form gluten. Gluten strands traps the gas generated by the yeast and holds it in the dough structure. When it coagulates, it becomes the framework of the dough, so that it does not collapse. Gluten is conditioned by many factors including the amount of yeast and how active it is, the amount of salt and water in the dough, fermentation time, dough temperature, the acidity of the dough and manipulation (kneading). Given good material and correct balance, nothing contributes to good bread making than properly made dough. The kneading, fermentation and the knocking back are also important. Proper mixing gives gluten the opportunity to absorb the maximum water and become thoroughly hydrated.

IMPROVERS – contain chemicals, which would be produced in dough naturally, given time, under the skilled eye of the baker. The are used in no Time dough, 1 to 1 1/2 % for rich dough and 2½% in leaner dough. For basic bread goods 2% improver are added to the flour, water salt and yeast, and is calculated on the basis of the flour only. For dough that is enriched with fat and sugar and eggs, 1 to 1 1/2% is enough. The active ingredients in a typical improver would include sugar, pure emulsifier, soya or guar flour, ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and enzyme active malt flour.

RETARDATION

Retardation is the arresting of fermentation at temperatures between 2°C and 4°C. It enables the dough to be made in bulk, retarded and then baked through the day as and when required. This ensures freshness and standard quality. Enriched dough which ferments slowly, retard the best and can be kept for up to 72 hours. Retardation can be done in two ways:  the dough is given between 50-70% of its Bulk Fermentation Time (BFT), then rolled out in 3 kgs-4kgs pieces to quickly take out its heat, and then refrigerated. In the second method, the dough is again given 50-70% of its BFT and then made into pieces, refrigerated and then kneaded, and then brought back to room temperature. The final proving should not be forced. The dough should be cooled before retarding as a high temperature will extend fermentation before retardation is effective. To avoid crusting of the dough, it should be kept in the refrigerator at 75% humidity or in polythene bags.

DOUGH ENRICHMENT

Dough is sometimes enriched with fat, milk or egg yolks, to increase the food value, add to the taste and flavour, and to produce a softer crumb (texture) and also to retard staling. Salt will have to be reduced when using salted butter. Fermentation is slower in enriched dough, so the dough should be kept a little softer and for a slightly longer time.

 

POINTS TO NOTE

– Take careful note of the formula/recipe and the method,

– See that the scales are accurate and the scale pans are clean.

– Carefully weigh the flour, sieve it, and take temperature,

– Calculate water temperature and measure.

– Disperse yeast in a little water, add salt in the rest of the water and add     to the flour,

– Mix thoroughly until clear and elastic.

-Take the dough temperature and cover the dough to prevent skin formation. – Prove in a place at the correct temperature or in the prover.

– Knock back when proved according to the BFT.

– Prove rolls in the prover or at controlled temperature and humidity.

– Cover with greased polythene sheet to prevent skin formation

– Egg/starch wash and cutting is best done when the dough is ¾ proved.

–         Rolls are baked at 230°C with steam.

STEPS IN BREAD MAKING OPERATIONS

 

To start with, the ingredients should be correctly scaled and weighed as per a good recipe. Baking is a science, it is essential to begin correctly with the right ingredients in the correct proportions.

1. FERMENTATION:  the dough should be fermented for the proper length of time, during which the yeast cells act on the sugars and produce carbon dioxide and alcohol. A number of physical and chemical changes take place during this time.

Physical changes include:

–         steady increase in the volume of the dough and can be up to five times its original volume

–         increase in temperature by about 5°C to 6°C

–         Increase in the number of yeast cells by about 26% in straight dough and 56% in sponge dough.

–         Loss of moisture

–         Change in the consistency of the dough – it becomes soft, elastic and extensible

Chemical changes include:

–         the PH of the dough reduces from 5.5 to 4.7 due to the production of acetic acid, lactic acid, sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid

–         formation of maltose by diastatic enzymes by acting on starch

–         production of carbon dioxide and alcohol by enzymatic reactions

–         Mellowing of the gluten by proteolytic enzymes present in the flour and yeast.

Fermentation time will depend on:

–         type of flour

–         quantity of the yeast

–         temperature of the dough

–         presence of yeast food (sugar)

2. FERMENTATION CONTROL

It is important to control the fermentation so that the gas production and the gas retention coincide as closely as possible. If the peak of gas production in the dough is reached before its gas retention capacity is at a maximum, then much of the gas will be dissipated and not enough will be left to aerate the dough when its extensibility is at its highest point. On the other hand if the dough reaches its optimum gas retention capacity before gas production is at its highest rate, much of the gas will be lost subsequently. Hence, fermentation control is important to have the development of gas production and gas retention capacities at a parallel and even rate.

3. GAS PRODUCTION:

Gas production will increase with:

–         addition of malt and sugar

–         the increase of yeast concentration

–         the presence of yeast food

–         high temperature of the dough (35°C)

Gas production decreases with:

–         addition of salt

–         excess amounts of yeast foods

–         higher temperature of the dough (above 35°C)

4. GAS RETENTION

Gas retention is governed by chemical and physical factors such as minerals, moisture, PH, proteolytic enzymes and oxidising agents, mixing, dough expansion, punching (knocking back).

5. FERMENTATION LOSSES

The weight loss in fermented dough is in the range of 0.5 to 4%. However, under average conditions it is 1%. The loss in weight is normally attributed to the loss in moisture, which depends on the temperature and the relative humidity. Minor loss may be attributed to the escape of carbon dioxide.

6. KNOCK BACK

Punching of the dough in between fermentation periods:

–         increases the gas retention of the dough

–         Equalises the temperature throughout the dough and ensures more even fermentation.

–         Reduces the retarding effect of excessive accumulation of carbon dioxide

–         Introduces atmospheric oxygen and stimulates yeast activity

–         Aids the mechanical development of gluten by the stretching and folding actions

The first punch is normally given when 60% of the fermentation is complete and the second punch is given in half the time required for the first punch.

7. DOUGH MAKE UP

The function of dough make up is to transform the dough into properly scaled and moulded dough pieces, which after prooving and baking will yield the desired bread. The operations involved include:

a)     Scaling (dividing): the dough is divided into individual pieces of pre determined uniform weight and size. The weight of the dough depends on the final weight of the dough. Generally, 12% extra dough is weighted to compensate for the baking losses. Dividing should be performed in the minimum amount of time to ensure even weight as the dough is scaled on volumetric basis. Longer time changes the density of the dough due to production of carbon dioxide by yeast, thereby changing the weight of the divided dough. If there is delay n dividing, corrective steps such as de gassing the dough or increasing the size of the dough should be taken. The de gassers are essentially dough pumps which fed the dough into the hopper and in the process remove most of the gas. The advantage of using de gassers are:

–         more uniform scaling

–         Uniform texture and grain of the bread.

b)    Rounding The dough pieces, which had lost a good part of the gas during the dividing, is irregular in shape and sticky with perhaps cut surfaces. The function of the rounding (using a rounder), is to impart a new continuous skin that will retain the gas as well as reduce the stickiness.

c)     Intermediate Proof: Dough that has undergone dividing and rounding operations has lost much gas, lacks extensibility and will tear easily. It is rubbery and will not mould properly. To restore a more flexible and pliable structure, which will respond well to the manipulations of the moulder, it is necessary to let the dough rest while the fermentation continues.

d)    Moulding: The dough is now moulded into the required shapes.

 

9. FINAL PROOF

The purpose of the final proof is to relax the dough from the stress received during the moulding operations and to facilitate the production of gas in order to give volume to the loaf. It also changes the tough gluten to a good, mellow and extensible character.

10 BAKING

It is the most important step in bread making and the heat transforms the unpalatable dough into a light porous readily digestible and flavoured product. The factors that influence the quality of baked products are the baking temperature, humidity and the duration of baking (baking time). There are two types of changes that take place during baking.

Physical Changes:

 

1. Film Formation: when the dough is placed in the oven, the effect of heat is the instantaneous formation of a thin expandable surface film. The length of the time that the film remains expandable depends on the temperature and the moisture conditions of the oven.
2. Oven Spring: Sudden expansion of the dough volume by about 1/3^rd of its original size in the oven is called oven spring. In short, it is the difference in height of the product, before and after baking. The dough piece containing millions of minute gas cells, under the influence of heat, begins to expand. As the pressure in the gas cells increases and causes expansion of cell walls, the carbon dioxide generated by yeast in the dough is liberated at about 50°C. the freed gas increases the pressure in the gas cells causing expansion of the dough. The evaporation of alcohol and other low boiling point liquid increases the gas pressure, leading to an additional expansion of gas cells.

Chemical changes:

1. Yeast Activity: the yeast in the dough will generate carbon dioxide and alcohol with the rate of generation increasing the temperature until the thermal death point of yeast (60°C) is reached.
2. Starch Gelatinization: the oven spring due to the softening of gluten in the early stages of baking is counter acted by the starch swelling which begins at about 54C. The degree of gelatinizaton is restricted by the limited availability of water.
3. Gluten Coagulation: Starch geltinization is associated with water absorption resulting in the removal of water in gluten as it denatures, Gluten coagulation sets in at about 74°C and continues till the end of baking. In this process, gluten is transformed into a semi-rigid cell structure. The major change that takes place during baking is the re distribution of water from gluten phase to starch phase.

 

SUNIL KUMAR

SIHM ROHTAK

Chapter 22: BREAD FAULTS

A good bread should be judged by its volume, bloom, shape, color, texture, sheen, moistness and flavor. In general, one should examine the external area and the internal (crumb) area of the bread.

Bread faults can arise from many causes. Flour varies in grade, in gluten content and quality. Color also varies and so does the maltose content. When examining the faults in the loaf of bread, the temperature and timings, methods of manipulation, addition of materials, errors in setting and timing of machinery, all must be taken into account.

 

EXTERNAL FAULTS

1. Lack of volume: The major causes of this fault are

–         a dough that is too tight and with too little yeast

–         Too much salt will cause under ripening, conducive to small volume.

–         Flour with low maltose will produce bread of less than normal volume. Over bleached flour or the excess use of chemical improvers, will also produce this fault.

2. Excessive volume:

Dough with

–         low salt content

–         excess final proof

–         loose moulding

will produce a bread of excessive volume

Excess salt decreases the stability of gluten. An excessively slack dough also produces a bread with excess volume. This can be adjusted by altering the proving time. A cool oven causes fermentation to continue in the oven. Therefore there will be too much oven spring.

 

 

3.Lack of Crust Color: Baking the bread in a cool oven renders the loaf colorless. The other causes for lack of crust color may be:

–         over ripe dough, due to extended fermentation period (all the sugar is used up)

–         excess water content

–         lack of maltose

–         lack of salt

1. Excess Crust Color: The likely causes are

 

–         insufficient fermentation

–         excessive use of sugar

–         flour might have been milled from sprouted wheat (partially)

–         baking too quickly and at too high a temperature

1. Shell Tops: This is due to the formation of a crust on top of the loaf before maximum expansion has taken place. The pressure from within the loaf exerts itself in such a way that the top of the loaf lifts in the form of a lid.

1. Rough Surfaces: The crust of over fermented dough is always rough. Use less yeast. Bad molding can also cause unsightly crust surfaces.

1. Collapsing Bread: Collapsing bread is caused by insufficient tensile strength of the dough. Such dough is mainly due to too much water, malt or gluten improvers. Other causes could be

–         over proving

–         baking in cold oven

–         Disturbance of the dough before entering the oven.

Extraneous matter that may have been an accident, can lodge itself in the mass of the dough. However there can be no excuse for dark smears caused by dirty tin grease, finger marks or the dirt from unclean racks and boxes.

EXTERNAL FAULTS

1. Holes in the crumb: A dough made from flour weak in gluten, especially when the yeast content is high, will cause holes, because the gluten has little power of gas retention and the weaker cells will break down during baking. Faulty manipulation after bulk fermentation destroys the elasticity of the gluten and therefore the expansion does not proceed evenly, breakage occurs and large holes are formed in the mass.

1. Cores Seams Streaks and Condensation Marks: The most common cause for cores is the incorporation of pellets or hard flour or dough particles. Another common cause is the turning in of a dry skin when moulding. Slight over proving or over malting often cause a core near the bottom of the loaf.

Seams are dense layers of inedible bread. He careless causes them handling when loading. Movement of    the dough in the oven during baking makes the delicate dough structure tremble and collapse sufficiently to form a seam or a heavy uncooked layer.

Streaks are evidence of uneven manipulation of the dough in the final stages. Loose moulding and insufficient final proof are also causes of streaks. Dark streaks are also caused by high maltose flour.

Condensation marks are due to improper packing.

1. Damp Clammy or Close Crunch:

The common causes are:

–         Use of high maltose flour, milled from sprouted wheat.

–         Overloading the dough with enriching agents

–         Use of very weak flour

–         Over machining the dough

–         Wrapping the bread prematurely

–         Development of a ropy condition

1. Crumbliness: A slack dough will produce crumbly bread. Crumbliness is related to the degree of fermentation. If the fermentation is insufficient, then the gluten is not conditioned and the crumb has neither the resilience nor tensile strength necessary to whit stand the action of cutting the loaf. Excessive mineral improvers also cause crumbliness.

SUNIL KUMAR

SIHM ROHTAK

 

Chapter 23: BREAD IMPROVERS

We refer to flour as being either strong or weak. The strength of flour varies according to its strength and also according to factors such as starch content, sugar content, the water absorption power (WAP) of the flour and even the  color. These aspects will affect the final outcome. In order to make good bread, it is not always possible to use the right type of flour as the availability may vary. It becomes necessary therefore to add something to the dough in order to bring the product to a pre determined standard. This addition should be with discretion on knowledge, otherwise, the quality of the bread instead of improving, may actually worsen.

 

 

Bread improvers are substances, which when added to dough, enables the baker to produce an improved loaf with better keeping qualities, finer textures, softer crumb, added bloom and enhanced flavor.

There are three main types of bread improvers:

1. Mineral additives
2. Yeast foods
3. Enriching agents

MINERAL ADDITIVES

Mineral bread improvers are used during the milling of wheat flour. They are commonly used by the baker during production as well. They will include:

–      Perusulphates – used by the miller at the rate of ¼ to ½ oz per 280 lbs (one sack). The perusulphates used are pottassium and ammonium. Flour treated with perusulphates will take on more water and an increased yield is obtained.

–         Glyceral Mono Stearate – The mono glyceral ester of stearic acid, which has remarkable emulsifying power, is used as an emulsion stabiliser and as a crumb softener in bread.

 

–         Potassium Bromate – It is used by the miller at the rate of 1 lb per sack (280 lbs). Bromate increases the stability on the gluten to extend. Bromate has an astringent action on gluten thereby increasing the use of water in the dough. It also increases the gas retaining properties of the gluten, thus improving loaf volume.

–         Phosphates – Acid calcium phosphates and ammonium phosphates both have a tightening action on gluten and since phosphates are a necessary constituent of yeast food, they are both fermented stimulants. Acid calcium phosphate (ACP) is used at the rate of 1 lb per sack (280lbs) which can be increased to 2 lbs per sack to inhibit the development of rope. A phosphate is added at the rate of 8 oz per sack.

–         Lime Water – Lime water was used to retard the fermentation of the dough in hot weather climates. In addition, it has astringent action on the gluten. As lime is alkaline, it reduces the acidity of the dough and thus slows the rate of the fermentation. It is used at the rate of 1 quart per sack.

–         Organic acid – Organic acids are natural constituents of fermented dough. They are added to get the dough better conditioned. Lactic acid can be added at the rate of 8 oz per sack. Sussinic acid is added at the rate of 2-4 oz per sack.

 

YEAST FOODS

Yeast foods indirectly affect the bread in a number of ways by their effect on fermentation. Malt not only provides food directly to the yeast but manufactures further supplies as and when needed whilst simultaneously mellowing and softening the gluten of the flour.

There are two types of malt: diastatic and non diastatic.

Diastatic malt add to the flavor, it increases the sugar content in the dough and provides diastatic sugar for the fermentation process. Diastatic enzymes also contain proolytic enzymes which modify gluten. Non Diastatic malt serves the dual purpose of providing sugar as well as adding to the flavor.

Flour contains natural sugar. Principally, this is sucrose in varying amounts. Normally, it is 2.5 –3%. This amount is not sufficient for satisfactory fermentation. There must be sufficient sugar present for the production of gas that will give the loaf the required volume and to allow for the caramelization of the crust during baking. As sugar contains no nitrogen, they cannot be considered complete foods for yeast, but they produce material from which CO2 can be produced. Demerara sugar and even treacle can be used in brown breads as they are excellent for imparting flavor and retaining color.

 

ENRICHING AGENTS

 

 

Enrichment is a way of increasing nutritional value of the bread along with improvements in volume, texture and the keeping quality of the bread

 

Fats –  Fats have a physical rather than a chemical effect on dough. As fat is a shortening agent, it reduces toughness, thus making the product more mellow. It is particularly valuable for use with strong flour with a tough and harsh gluten content. Fats can be used in small quantities to give optimum effect. Fat also increases food value. They add to the moistness in bread thereby retarding staling. They also impart flavor to the bread.

 

Milk and Milk Products  – Whole milk added to dough has the effect of adding fat as well as sugar, besides calcium salts and casein.

 

Eggs – The incorporation of eggs in a bread dough results in many improvements. Egg adds to the increased volume, better texture and better oven spring. It is economical to use as it contributes immensely to improved quality and volume of the product.

SUNIL KUMAR

SIHM ROHTAK

 

CHAPTER 24: FROZEN DESSERTS

In present times, frozen desserts have become so popular that they are now a major profit – making item on the menu in many commercial outlets such as fast foods and coffee shops. It also has an advantage that they can be prepared in advance and can be stored for long periods of time. Ice creams are purchased ready- made and require no preparation time, space or manpower.

–          Frozen Yoghurts contains yoghurt in addition to the normal ingredients for ice cream

–          Sherbets and Ices made from fruit juices, water and sugar. American sherbets usually contain cream or milk and sometimes egg whites. The egg whites increase smoothness and volume. Ices, which are also called water ices, contain only fruit juices, purees and sugar. The do not contain milk products and are often referred to as sorbets or granite. Ice creams and sorbets are churn frozen and are constantly mixed while they are freezing. If they are not churned, they would freeze into a solid block of ice. The churning keeps the ice crystals small and also incorporates air into the ice cream.

–          Frozen souffle, bavarois and mousses are referred to as still-frozen desserts. There is no churning involved. Egg whites or fresh cream is incorporated to give lightness.

–          Specialty ice creams are commonly found ways in which ice creams are served. These include :

1. Bombes
2. Parfaits
3. Coupes/sundaes
4. Meringues glace
5. Baked alaska
6. Frozen eclairs and profiteroles

What is Ice cream?

Technically, ice cream may be defined as the partly frozen foam with an air content of 40-50% air by volume. The continuous phase of the foam contains dissolved and colloidal solids such as sugars, proteins and stabilizers. The fatty phase is in the emulsified form. Some of the milk proteins are structurally related to the fat globules of the emulsion.

Imitation ice cream is known as Mellorine and is made now in many parts of the world. Mellorine is cheaper than ice cream because in expensive vegetable fats and oils are substituted for the more expensive dairy fats. Other than this, mellorine has almost the same composition as ice cream. There is still no cheap substitute for milk protein, although some vegetable proteins, particularly from soy bean, with improved flavors are used to prepare lactose free ice creams.

Prevention of food adulteration Act (PFA) Rule A 11.02.08, defines ice cream and kulfi as under:

The frozen food obtained from cow or buffalo milk, or a combination thereof, or from cream and /or milk product with or without the addition of cane sugar (dextrose, liquid glucose and dried liquid glucose), eggs, fruit and fruit juices, preserved fruits, nuts, chocolate, edible flavors and permitted food colors. It may contain permitted stabilizers and emulsifiers not exceeding.5% by weight. The mixture should be suitably heated before freezing. The product must contain not less than 10% milk fat, not less than 36% total solids, except when the aforesaid preparation contains fruits, nuts or both, the content of the milk fat shall not be less than 8% by weight. Starch may be added to a maximum extent of 5% under the declaration on the label. The standards of ice cream shall also be applied to softee.

Ice cream is a complex system in which the stable mixed emulsion of four phase system of fat-water-ice-air, must be balanced and protected from breaking and separating.

The blend of milk fat and non fat solids with sugar must result in a product of pleasing taste and one which is smooth and creamy. Composition of the mix is important, but the most critical stage of ice cream manufacture is the mechanical blending, freezing and hardening of the ice cream.

COMPOSITION OF ICE CREAM

The ingredients used in ice cream manufacture are milk, skim milk powder, cream, butterfat, sugar, stabilizers, emulsifiers, food grade flavors and permitted colors. Chocolate, dried fruits and nuts, honey, fruit pulps and other such ingredients are also added to give variety.

Normal ice creams will have a milk fat content of 10-14% but richer ice cream will have a dairy fat content of up to 20-24%. Proteins are usually between 3.5-4%, sugar 14-15%, stabilizers .3-.5% and emulsifiers .1-.2%

MANUFACTURE OF ICE CREAM

The following are the steps involved in the processing of ice cream:

–    Pasteurization

–          Homogenization

–          Cooling

–          Ageing

–          Freezing

–          Hardening

–          Storage

–          Transportation and delivery

After weighing or metering by volume, the ingredients are heated together in a jacketed tank with strong agitation so as to form a core emulsion with large fat globules up to 15 gms in size. Pasteurization treatment may be carried out in the mixing tanks. During Homogenization, the mix is converted into a true emulsion with a fat globule size of less than 2 gms. For efficient homogenization, the fat phase should be completely liquid and hence a temperature near pasteurization temperature is preferred. Homogenization of the ice cream mix is normally carried out at a pressure of 140-210 kg/cm2. At the end of this treatment, it is often found that individual small fat globules cohere in clumps, resulting in a viscous mix with poor processing properties in subsequent stages. A second homogenization at lower pressure of 35kg/cm2 is used to break up the clumps.

The emulsion is now cooled immediately to 4°C sometimes using a super cool.

The next step is ageing. The cooled emiulsion is usually styored in a thermostatically controlled vessel for 2-8 hours because ageing improves freezer performance and produces better ice cream structure. During ageing, the stabilizer hydrates fully and increases the viscosity of the mix. The importance of ageing will vary with different stabilizers. Significant improvement in texture is noted at this stage.

 

FREEZING

Ice cream is available in two forms:

1. As hard ice cream which has been frozen in a continuous freezer and is either extruded, shaped or packed in small individual portions or in the larger family packs. The final processing step now is hardening at a low temperature cold store at –30 to -40°C before it is distributed in refrigerated transport.

2. As soft ice cream which is frozen in a small batch freezer situated at the retail outlet. Ice cream mix for this type of operation is provided as a pasteurized mix which must be stored at 4°C after manufacture. This is often referred to as the softee ice cream.

STORAGE OF ICE CREAM

Ice cream can be stored at 0°F (-18°C) to prevent large ice crystal formation.

For service, temper frozen ice cream till it is soft enough to serve. If scooping, the ice cream scoop must be rolled over the surface so that the ice cream forms into a round ball.

 

FUNCTIONS OF SOME OF THE INGREDIENTS:

 

–          Sugar: Sugar represents half the total amount of solids in the ice cream mix. It includes lactose, which is the natural milk sugar. Sugars act as a sweetening agent, depress the freezing point, influence the consistency and to some extent the size of the ice crystals and the lactose crystallization of the frozen ice cream.

–          Stabilizers: Gelatin was the first stablilzer used in the manufacture of ice cream. Since then a number of poly saccharide stabilizers have become available. These include sodium carboxy methyl micro crystalline cellulose, sodium alginate, cerragaenan, agar pectin, xanthin gums, carobbean and guar gum. Often a combination of these is used. Stabilizers perform several functions in the manufacture of ice cream. They increase the viscosity, thereby improving the body and creaminess of the ice cream. They also regulate the development of the ice crystals and thereby give a smooth texture to the ice cream. During inevitable temperature fluctuations, they minimise the development of large crystals and the undesirable coarse texture. They thicken the aqueous phase and modify the crystallization of ice

ICE CREAM QUALITY

Quality implies a clearly produced ice cream of acceptable flavor, taste, body and texture. The composition of the product and the ingredients used should be within the parameters and the limits set by the food laws. The desirable physical properties of ice cream should be defined mainly in terms of the texture as it is eaten. The consistency should be smooth and creamy and the air content should be finely distributed. There should be a quick melting effect on the palette, without greasiness or gumminess and with no gritty icy sensation. As the ice cream warms up, it should have a tendency to retain its shape, and as it melts, a creamy and not a watery serum should be formed. Flavor acceptability is governed by the quality of the ingredients that are used as well. Fruits, nuts, chocolate as well as the added flavors should be of a good quality. However, the basic flavor must come from high quality of milk and cream.

ICE CREAM – THE CHILLING TRUTH

 

 

Ice cream, Sumptuous…….., Luscious………………., Creamy…………. Ice cream!!!

Now that summer is almost here, it is time for scoops of it. But, have you ever considered what gives that delightful taste to a snowy vanilla ice cream? The real extract of orchids??? Forget it!!! The genuine vanilla that is obtained from the variety of orchids, almost never reaches the ice cream manufacturer. Instead, a synthetic substance called vanillin makes its way into the creamy stuff. Vanallin comes much cheaper than vanilla. If a small amount of vanilla can flavor two cups of ice cream, then the same amount of vanillin can flavor 500 cups. So why should’nt the manufacturer use the cheaper stuff…the customer would never know!!!! The substitute tastes like the real thing, but it is far from harmless!  This is largely because there is very little accountability for the manufacturers.  Even in the US, the food and drug administration (FDA) has not forced icecream manufacturers to name all the ingredients on the labels of their products.  All you get is the brand name, the Company’s name and the flavour.  The small print merely says, ‘only permitted colours and flavours used.  But what flavours and what colours?  Icecream companies here and abroad are given carte blanche to use additives.  Not surprisingly, neutralisers, stabilisers, emulsifiers, buffers, anti-oxidants, surfactants, bactericidals, synthetic colours and artificial flavours – all find their way into the gooey stuff.  In 1942 the FDA had banned the use of many additives because their safety had not been verified.  But oddly enough, again in 1960, it sanctioned the use of these chemicals – although there was still no proof of their safety.  The fact is that surfactants, which reduce the surface tension and are wetting agents, are chemicals similar to detergents.  And most emulsifiers are polyoxyethylene based and have caused cancer in experimental animals.  Most germicidals, anti-freeze agents and pain removers contain propylene glycol alginate – so does icecream.  Why then are these products used?  Animals given even minute quantities of propylene glycol alginate developed diarrhoea and some of them even died.

Artificial flavours are harmful too, besides vanillin another substitute for vanilla is piperonal, which is a lice killer.  Chocolate icecream contains aldehyde C 18, amylphenyl acetate, n-butyl, phenyl, veratraldehyde, and other such tongue twisters… All, strong chemicals you wouldn’t like to touch, leave alone eat.  Rare are the manufacturers who use real fruit like strawberries.  More usually, artificial flavours are employed.  Pineapple icecream is often flavoured with ethylacetate, which is a cleaning agent for leather and textiles and whose vapours cause damage to the heart, liver and lungs.  Banana icecream scarcely contains banana, but an artificial flavour – amyl acetate – which is actually a solvent for oil paint.  Now you wouldn’t let your kids come anywhere near that.

In the west, there are thousands of synthetic colourings which are usually coal tar dyes proven to be carcinogenic.  Worse, most Indian icecreams are violently coloured to suit our flashy tastes, which just means a whole lot of colour.  It’s time the government stopped being complacent about a food product that is downed by tons every day.   On the positive front, Indian icecreams are believed to be more wholesome and natural and not so thoroughly soaked in synthetic additives as in the West.  Even then icecream companies should be made to mention all ingredients by name on their labels, plus the date of manufacture and expected shelf life.

Accountability is the only solution when it concerns the health of millions.

SUNIL KUMAR

SIHM ROHTAK

CHAPTER 25:  CAKE FORMULA BALANCING

What is a CAKE FORMULA?

It is an accurate record of the quantities of the raw materials necessary to make a particular type of cake. In other words………..it is an accurate recipe. If the recipe is correct, it will produce a good cake. As important as the recipe is the correct temperature, time and packing of the product. A good cake is one showing no faults, either in appearance, texture or while eating. It should be of good flavor and aroma and if it contains fruits, they must be evenly distributed. Bakery being the science that it is, we refer to the recipe as a formula. In the bakery, the range of ingredients that are used and which are essential is limited. There is Flour, Fat, Sweetening and Moistening. Each of these has a specific role to play and must be in Balance with each other.

What is BALANCE?

The ingredients that are used in cake making are divided according to their functions:

The Tougheners – these are the ingredients that provide structure and form and give shape to the product. These will include flour and egg. The starch in the flour gelatinizes and the protein in the egg coagulates during baking and gives shape to the cake.

The Softeners – these are the ingredients that soften the texture of the cake and include sugar and fat and milk. This softens the texture of cake and makes it different from that of bread, which contains basically the same ingredients but in a different proportion.

The Moisteners – these ingredients like milk, egg and liquid sweeteners like golden syrup provide the moistening effect in the batter and adjust the consistency.

The Driers – are those ingredients, which absorb the excess moisture in the batter and include flour, milk powder, cocoa powder.

The problem in Balancing is that certain ingredients perform more than one function. Eggs provide toughening but are also a moistening agent. Milk is a moistening agent, but milk powder is a drier!!!! The aim of formula balancing is to balance the moisteners with the driers and the tougheners with the softeners. A simple sponge recipe may be in perfect balance, but when converted into a chocolate cake, the addition of cocoa powder in the recipe will mean additional driers so the corresponding moistening (addition of milk) will have to be increased as well.

There are three simple rules that govern Formula Balancing:

–         the weight of the fat should not exceed the egg

–         the weight of the fat should not exceed the sugar

–         the weight of the sugar should not exceed the total liquid

The Effect of Sugar

Sugar sweetens. It also has the power to lift and lighten the cake and to give the crust its color. It improves the taste and the flavour of the cake as well as the keeping quality and it adds to its nutritive value. The extra sugar in a recioe will result in the M Fault, when the extra sugar has lifted the batter to such an extent that the protein-starch structure can no longer hold up the cake and collapses. Excess sugar will result in spots on the crust and the crumb will be sticky (excess moisture). On the other hand, if the batter is made with less sugar, it will have a decreased volume with a peaked surface. The crumb will be dry and harsh. The peaked top is the result of the lack of softening action of the sugar on the gluten, which in turn will have greater resistance to expansion resulting in a peaked top.

 

The Effect of Fat

Fat imparts a rich and pleasant eating quality to the cake and increases the food value. Butter adds flavor and improves the quality of the cake. Because of its shortening property, fat/butter also prevents toughness. It holds the air that is incorporated in the initial process of creaming. To much fat in a recipe will result in a cake of poor vol; Ume. The top crust will be thick and greasy. An increase in fat must be balanced by an increase in the toughners (structural material) like flour and egg. Less fat will make the caske tough, the volume will be poor and the crumb structure will show tunnel like holes pointing to the centre of the crown of the cake.

The Effect of Baking Powder

Baking Powder is used for aeration, thus increasing the volume of the cake. Some recipes do not use baking powder and the aeration is provided by mechanical means like creaming or beating (of eggs) or by sieving. Excess baking powder will produce the same effect as an excess of sugar will produce. The only difference is that there is a generation of gas beyond that which the flour and egg can take, with the result, the cake collapses. The crust of the cake is darker than normal and the crumb is open and is discolored especially near the base of the cake. Less baking powder will produce a cake of poor volume.

 

Common Problems/Faults in Cakes

 

1. Cakes rise and fall during baking: An unbalanced formula is commonly responsible for this condition. Too much liquid or sugar will weaken the structure. Less flour or weak flour will not produce the structure required to support the leavening action. An excess of baking powder will produce excess gas that will weaken the structure and cause collapse. Too much aeration caused by over beating will also stretch the cell structure causing it to weaken. Excess fat may overburden the flour and egg structure causing the cake to rise initially and then collapse. Also, if during baking, the cake in the oven is shifted about before the it is fully set, it will tend to fall back.

1. Cakes sink after baking: Cakes that are rich in sugar and fat but not supported by sufficient flour and egg will tend to sink after baking. Excess moisture in the in the cake may cause shrinkage. Too rapid cooling of freshly baked cakes can also cause shrinkage.

1. Cakes have Peaks: Peaks are often caused by too strong flour. A high gluten content will ause the batter to become stringy and binding. Lack of liquid results in a firmer batter that does not expand evenly and peaks are formed from the forced breakthrough of the expanding gas and steam.

1. Fruits sink to the Bottom of the Cake: A moderately strong flour must be used to make fruit cakes. There should be sufficient amount of gluten developed to hold the fruits in suspension. Some amount of extra gluten can be developed by mixing the batter well, after the addition of the flour. This will provide a structure that is strong enough to hold the fruits and the nuts. Weak flour will allow the fruits to sink to the bottom as the fat melts and liquifies and sugars are in a syrup form. Also, large pieces of fruits will settle as they are too large to be supported. Fruits, which come in sugar syrup, must be drained properly. Excess liquid will act like a lubricant and allow the fruits to move rapidly through the batter during the baking process.

1. Cakes crumble when sliced: An open grain and a weak structure are the primary cause for cakes getting crumbly. It may be due to over creaming, excess shortening or sugar or even improper mixing. A weak structure is caused because of a weak flour or lack of the flour – egg combination. An excess of sugar creates a very open grain that will not hold the fruits. Fruits that are not soaked and are dry will absorb the moisture and make the cake crumble.

SUNIL KUMAR

SIHM ROHTAK

 

CHAPTER 26: PASTRY

Various types of pastries are used in the preparation of sweet and savory dishes in the bakery and confectionery. These include:

1. Short crust pastry
2. Flaky pastry
3. Puff pastry
4. Danish pastry
5. Choux pastry
6. Rough puff pastry
7. Hot water pastry

SHORT CRUST PASTRY

Short crust pastry is a mixture of flour, fat, sugar and sometimes egg and milk. The flour should have low gluten content, one that is milled from soft wheat flour. The fat will reduce the extensibility of the gluten that is it makes the gluten strands shorter….hence the term shortening for the fat used in the bakery and the term short crust pastry. The usual method of making short crust pastry is by the rub-in method. Chilled fat or butter is rubbed into the sieved flour so that it is finely dispersed and resembles a sandy or bread crumb like texture. The fat forms a thin layer or coating on the glutenin and gliadin molecules, without turning the fat into a continuous paste. Cold water is sprinkled over the mixture to form smooth dough. The ratio of fat to flour is normally 1:2, but the fat can be increased to equal the flour to obtain a rich dough. This dough would be very difficult but not impossible, to work with. Pate Sucre is a sweet version of this pastry and sugar is creamed with butter before the flour and the moisture is added. The ratio of sugar fat and flour is 1:2:4. Various sweet and savoury products are made with short crust pastry. It forms the base of several pies, tarts, flans and also products like cheese straws and turnovers. Few precautions must be taken when making short crust pastry. It is important not to work the dough too much as it will get tough due to the development of gluten. This can also happen when scrapings and trimmings are added to the dough and re worked. The use of too much flour for dusting will also alter the ratio of the mixture and cause toughening as the extra flour proteins – glutenin and gliadin –  does not have a coating of fat around it, and thus come together to form gluten.

Some faults in Short Crust Pastry

 

–         Hard or tough pastry is due to too much liquid or too little fat. It is also probably due to over mixing.

–         A soft and crumbly pastry is due to too little water for the binding, too much fat or the use of self raising flour instead of plain flour.

–         A shrunken pastry is due to excess stretching during rolling.

–         A soggy pastry is the result of the filling in the product being too moist.

LAMINATED PASTRY

This category of pastry includes Puff, Flaky, Rough Puff and Danish Pastry.

Puff and Flaky are two of the most remarkable products of the Bake Shop. Although they are similar products, they are made differently and it is almost impossible to tell which is. Puff is referred to as the French method whereas the English refer to it as Flaky pastry. The Scots have their own version and call it Rough Puff Pastry. The flour used for laminated pastry must be of high gluten content so that it will stand up to the manipulation involved in building up the laminated structure. Butter is the preferred fat because of its flavour and melt in the mouth quality. Special pastry margarine is also available. It has a low moisture content and good creaming value…ideal for this kind of pastry. This product is easy to work with as it does not get too hard in the refrigerator. A weak acid solution such as lemon juice or cream of tartar is added to the dough, as it will confer greater extensibility to the gluten.

Puff pastry has equal amounts of fat and flour. A dough is made with flour, salt, and the lemon juice. After allowing it to rest, the dough is rolled out into a square and the creamed block of fat is placed in the centre. The dough is then folded around the fat and it is refrigerated for a while. The dough is then rolled into a rectangle about ½ “thick. Fold the two ends to the centre and then into half (book fold). Make sure that the edges /corners are even. Refrigerate/rest the dough to relax the gluten. Do not refrigerate for too long as the fat will harden. Now turn the dough 90° on the table so that the length now becomes the breadth. This step must be repeated before subsequent rollings so that it helps to stretch the gluten in all directions, not just lengthwise. Failure to do this will result in the product that shrinks unevenly when they are baked. Repeat the rolling and folding a total of four times. The dough is now ready to be rolled out for the final shaping and cutting.

Flaky pastry is a similar product. The dough is similar but the amount of fat is only 2/3 that of the flour. The fat is creamed into a homogenous mass and divided into three parts. The dough is rolled out into a rectangle about ½ “thick. One third of the fat is then spread onto 2/3^rd of the dough surface. The dough is then folded into three so that there are alternate layers of fat and dough. The dough is then rested/refrigerated to relax the gluten. The process is repeated twice more to use up all the fat and then once again without fat (blind fold). Remember to rest the dough between each rolling. The pastry is now ready for the final make up.

Khari biscuits, vol-au-vents, cream horns, cheese straws, meat and vegetable puffs are some of the sweet and savory products made with puff and flaky pastry.

Rough Puff pastry is the Scottish answer to Puff and Flaky pastry. This is the quickest method of making a laminated pastry. Old books describe it as the Blitz method, the term being derived from the German Blitzen. Meaning lightening.  In this method, the fat is mixed into the sieved flour in pieces, the size of walnuts. A dough is made using water and a little lemon juice, without using too much pressure so that the fat does not completely blend into the dough. The dough is then rolled out like the Flaky pastry method and the process is repeated two more times. The dough is now ready for rolling cutting into the desired shape.

When laminated pastries are baked, the fat melts and forms oil layers between the layers of dough, preventing them from sticking to each other. As the heat penetrates into the product, the water in the dough layers changes into steam and pushes the lubricated leaves of dough apart. This produces an increase in the volume of the dough. Later, the gluten in the flour coagulates while the water is dried out so that by the time the pastry is properly cooked, it is able to retain its distended puffy volume. The temperature of the oven has an important role to play in the success of this product. The temperature must be hot enough to generate the steam required.

Danish pastry is a rich, sweet and fermented dough. The fat is laminated into the dough and therefore, Danish is also considered a laminated pastry. A ferment of yeast, sugar, eggs and milk is added to the flour to make a soft dough. After resting and knocking back the dough, it is then rolled into a rectangle and the fat spread evenly. The dough is then cut into three uneven sizes and a spool is made….that is….rolling the smallest into the medium and then that into the largest piece of dough. The dough is wrapped into a moist cloth and refrigerated for 15-20 minutes. It is then rolled and cut into the desired shapes. Egg wash is applied and the product is allowed the second prooving and then is baked at 200°C for 20 minutes. The pastry is brushed with sugar syrup after baking.

Croissants, windmills, turnovers, napoleons, and breakfast Danish are products.

CHOUX PASTRY

The French term for this pastry Pate a choux literally means cabbage paste, because the profiteroles and cream puffs made from this pastry resemble little cabbages. These are hollow shells which have a crisp and brittle texture. They are then filled with a variety of fillings both sweet and savoury – including creamed cheese, fresh cream, crème patissiere, fish, and meat pate. Water, butter and salt are boiled together and then the flour is added in to form a partly gelatinised paste. It is mixed vigorously with a wooden spoon and then cooked once more till the mixture has a shiny appearance and leaves the sides of the pan. Beaten eggs are added gradually to the paste, beating continously to form a smooth pliable and piping consistency mass. It is then piped into the desired shapes – rosettes, fingers or balls. Choux paste is baked at 200°C so as to achieve maximum rise. The temperature is then reduced to 150C to dry out the shells and to obtain the crisp and brittle texture. During the baking, the products should not be subjected to unnecessary movements, otherwise the structure will collapse. Shells can be stored in airtight containers and used as and when required. Eclairs, Cream Puffs, Duchesses, profiteroles and cream puffs are all choux pastry based items.

HOT WATER PASTRY

 

This is also known as the cooked pastry and is seldom used these days. It is a lean dough made by cooking the flour, salt and a little fat in water to a paste. This paste is then used to line the sides of pie tins, using the hands to apply the mixture, the filling was then placed inside the tin and then covered with more of the paste. After baking, the dough was often discarded and it was more like a protective layer over the filling. Welsh miners oven carried their food wrapped in this pastry to work. At lunch time, the pastry was broken open and the filling- meat or fish – was consumed. Cornish Pasties, a traditional Welsh favorite was originally made with Hot Water Pastry.

SUNIL KUMAR

SIHM ROHTAK

 

CHAPTER 27:   BISCUITS AND COOKIES

The name biscuit comes from the French word bis, which means twice and cuit which means baked. It is a sweet or savory dry flat cake with a high calorie content (420-510 / 100 gm) The raw materials used for biscuit manufacture is flour, sweeteners, shortening, milk, leavening agents and other miscellaneous products.

Cookies were at one time referred to as small cakes or sweet biscuits. The Dutch have provided bakers and confectioners with the word kocke which means small cake. The Americans began to use the word cookie, whereas the English continue to use the word biscuit for the same product. There are more varieties of cookies than any other baked product because there are so many different shapes, sizes, textures and flavors that are possible.

CLASSIFICATION OF COOKIES/BISCUITS

Cookies can be formed by dropping, rolling, cutting out, moulding and pressing. Cookies are usually classified according to the way in which the dough is shaped:

1. bars and squares
2. drop cookies
3. rolled cookies
4. pressed cookies
5. moulded or shaped cookies
6. refrigerator cookies
7. bag cookies (piped)

Bar and drop cookies are made with soft dough that has a comparatively high percentage of liquid. The other varieties call for a stiff dough, usually less sweet and often higher in fart content than soft dough.

MIXING METHODS

 

Cookie mixing methods are similar to cake mixing methods. Major difference is that less liquid is incorporated, therefore less gluten. The methods of mixing are:

1. One stage
2. Creaming
3. Sponge

One Stage method: All the ingredients are mixed at once. Here the baker has less control over the mixing.

 

Creaming method: This is identical to the creaming method for cakes.  The amount of creaming affects the texture of the cookies, the leavening and the spread, hence only a small amount of creaming is desirable.

Sponge method: This is similar to the egg foam method for cakes. The only batter is delicate. Precaution that one has to take is to keep the batches small because the

MAKE UP METHODS

Because their mixing is simple, it is better to classify cookies and biscuits according to their makeup.

Bagged:  Also, called pressed cookies are made from soft dough. The dough must be soft enough to be forced through a pastry (piping) bag, but stiff enough to hold its shape. E.g.: Butter Buttons

Dropped: these cookies are made from soft dough. In this method, the batter is deposited on a sheet for baking with a spoon or a scoop. When the dough contains pieces of nuts, dried fruits or chocolate bits or chips, this method is used. Also, when you want the cookie to have a rough homemade look. E.g.: peanut macaroons.

Rolled: Cookies are rolled and then cut with cutters. Bakeshops and 5 star operations do not make these type of cookies because of the labour involved. Also, after cutting the scraps, these are re rolled, making tough and inferior cookies. The only advantage is that you can make different shapes and sizes. E.g.: Tricolor biscuits

Moulded : In this method, each piece of dough is moulded into the desired shape. This usually involves flattening the piece out with a weight. (stamp the design) e.g.: Shrewsbury Biscuits (from Kayani, Pune).

Icebox: Also called refrigerated cookies. This method is ideal for operations that wish to have freshly baked cookies on hand at all times. Rolls of dough are made in advance and kept in the fridge.  They are then cut and baked as needed. This method is also used to make multi colored cookies in various designs. E.g.: chequered and pinwheel.

Bar: Here the dough is baked in long narrow strips which are then cut cross wise into bars.

Sheet: This make up is like the sheet cakes….only denser and richer.

No matter what method is used, one important rule to follow is – the cookie should have a uniform size and thickness. This is essential for even baking. If the cookies are to be garnished, they must be done immediately on panning. Press them gently when still fresh. If you wait, the surface dries up.

PRECAUTIONS TO TAKE WHILE MAKING COOKIES/BISCUITS

 

1. A major precaution to be observed while making cookie mixture is that they should be quickly mixed and never over processed.
2. For hard to handle soft doughs, roll the dough directly on to the baking sheet. Cut into the desired shapes and remove the scraps from around.
3. If cookies should stick to the pan, put the pan back into the oven for a few seconds. This usually loosens the cookies easily.

Cookies may be iced, sandwiched with filling or dusted with confectioners sugar. They make a excellent finger food dessert or can be used as a garnish for a dessert. Cookies are one of the most profitable items produced by the baker. An important factor in the production is the use of high grade ingredients. Butter is the preferred shortening. It has a better flavor and a melt in the mouth quality. Careful selection of the purest spices, extracts and flavorings will assure delicious cookies. The type of flour used for cookies can vary from flours of medium strength to soft texture. Strong flours are not recommended for making cookies.

COOKIES AND BISCUIT FAULTS

1. Lack of spread.

1. Too fine granulation of sugar
2. Adding sugar at one time
3. Excessive mixing
4. Too hot oven temperature
5. Too much of acidity in the dough

2. Excess of spread

1. Excessive sugar
2. Too soft a batter consistency
3. Excessive pan grease
4. Too low an oven temperature
5.  Excessive or improper type of shortening

3. Tough cookies

1. Insufficient shortening
2. Flour too strong
3. Over handling

4. Sticking to pans

1. Too soft a dough
2. Excessive egg content
3. Unclean pans

5. Black spots and harsh crumbs

1. Excessive ammonia

Sometimes we want some cookies to be crisp, others to be soft, some to hold their shape and others to spread. In order to produce characteristics we want, and to correct faults, it is useful to know what causes these basic traits.

Crispness: Cookies are crisp if they are low in moisture.

–         Low proportion of liquid in the mixture, so stiff dough

–         High sugar and fat content

–         Baking long enough to reduce moisture

–         Small sizes or thin shapes

–         Proper storage

Softness: This texture is the opposite of crispness

–         High proportion of liquid

–         Low sugar and fat

–         Use of honey and molasses

–         short baking times

–         Large size or thick shapes.

–         Proper storage

Chewiness:  Moisture is necessary for chewiness

–         High sugar and liquid content

–         High proportion of egg

–         Strong flour

Spread:  This feature is desirable in some varieties of cookies while others must hold their shape

–         High sugar content increases the spread. Coarse sugar increases the spread while fine sugar reduces spread.

–         Baking soda and ammonia increases spread

–         Creaming fat and sugar contributes to leavening by incorporating air and therefore increases spread. Just blending fat and sugar to a paste reduces spread.

–         Low temperature increases spread

–         Excess liquid (slack batter) will increase the spread

–         Strong flour decreases spread

–         Spread is more on a heavily greased tray.

SUNIL KUMAR

SIHM ROHTAK

CHAPTER 28: BASIC BAKERY TERMS

 

Allumette             French word for ‘matchstick’. Various puff pastry items made in thin sticks or strips.

Almond Paste       A mixture of finely ground almonds and sugar.

Angel Food Cake A type of cake made with meringue (egg white and sugar) and flour.

Angel food Method        A cake mixing method involving folding a mixture of flour and sugar onto a meringue.

Baba                     A type of yeast cake that is soaked in syrup.

Babka                   A type of sweet yeast bread or coffee cake.

Baked Alaska       A dessert consisting of ice cream on a sponge base, covered with meringue and browned in the oven.

Baking Ammonia A leavening agent that releases ammonia gas and carbon dioxide.

Baklava                A Greek or Middle Eastern dessert made of nuts and phyllo dough and soaked in syrup.

Batter                   A semi-liquid mixture containing four or other starch, used for the production of cakes and breads, and for coating products to be deep-fried.

Bavarian Cream   A light cold dessert made of gelatin, whipped cream, and custard sauce or fruit.

Beignet Soufflé     A type of fritter made with éclair paste, which puffs up greatly when fried.

Black Forest Torte         A chocolate sponge layer cake filled with whipped cream and cherries.

Blanc Mange        1) An English pudding made with milk, sugar and cornstarch. 2) A French dessert made of milk, cream, almonds and gelatin.

Bloom                  A whitish coating on chocolate, caused by separated cocoa butter.

Blown Sugar        Pulled sugar that is made into thin walled, hollow shapes by being blown up like a balloon.

Bombe                  A type of frozen dessert made in a dome shaped mold.

Boston Cream Pie          A sponge cake or other yellow cake filled with pastry cream and topped with chocolate fondant or confectioners’ sugar.

Bran                     The hard outer covering of kernels of wheat and other grain.

Bran Flour           Flour to which bran flakes have been added.

Bread Flour          Strong flour, such as patent flour, used for breads.

Brioche                 Rich yeast dough containing large amounts of eggs and butter, or a product made from this dough.

Brown Sugar        Regular granulated sucrose containing various impurities that give it a distinctive flavor.

Buttercream         An icing made of butter and/or shortening blended with confectioners’ sugar or sugar syrup a and sometimes other ingredients.

Cabinet Pudding   A baked custard containing sponge cake and fruits.

Cake Flour           A fine, white flour made from soft wheat.

Caramelization     The browning of sugar caused by heat.

Cassata                An Italian style bombe, usually with three layers of different ice-creams, plus a filling of Italian meringue.

Cast Sugar           Sugar that is boiled to hard crack stage and than poured into molds to harden.

Celsius Scale        The metric system of temperature measurement, with 0°C set at the freezing point of water and 100°C set at the boiling point of water.

Charlotte              1) A cold dessert made of Bavarian cream or other cream in a special mold usually lined with ladyfingers or other sponge product. 2) A hot dessert made of cooked fruit and baked in a special mold lined with strips of bread.

Chemical Leavener         A leavener such as baking soda, baking powder or baking ammonia, which releases gases produced by chemical reactions.

Chiffon Cake        A light cake made by the chiffon method.

Chiffon Method    A cake mixing method involving the folding of egg whites into a batter made of flour, egg yolks and oil.

Chiffon Pie           A pie with a light fluffy filling containing egg whites and usually gelatin.

Chocolate Liquor Unsweetened chocolate, consisting of cocoa solids and cocoa butter.

Christmas Pudding        A dark, heavy steamed pudding made of dried and candied fruits, spices, beef suet and crumbs.

Clear Flour           A tan colored wheat flour made from the outer portion of the endosperm.

Coagulation          The process by which proteins become firm, usually when heated.

Cobbler                A fruit dessert similar to a pie but without a bottom.

Cocoa                   The dry powder that remains after cocoa butter is pressed out of the chocolate liquor.

Cocoa Butter        A white or yellowish fat found in natural chocolate.

Compote              Fruit cooked in sugar syrup.

Confectioners’      Sucrose that is ground to a fine powder and mixed with

Sugar                    a little cornstarch to prevent caking.

Coupe                  A dessert consisting of one or two scoops of ice-cream or sherbet, placed in a glass and topped with any number of syrups, fruits and garnishes – a sundae.

Couverture           Natural, sweet chocolate containing no added fats other than natural cocoa butter; used for dipping, molding, coating and similar purposes.

Creaming              The process of beating fat and sugar to blend them uniformly and to incorporate air.

Cream Pie             An unbaked pie containing a pastry cream type filling.

Cream Pudding    A boiled pudding made of milk, sugar, starch and eggs.

Crème Anglaise    A light vanilla flavored custard sauce made of milk, sugar and egg yolks.

Crème Caramel    A custard baked in a mold lined with caramelized sugar and then de-molded.

Crêpe                   A very thin pancake often served rolled around a filling.

Crêpes Suzette     French pancakes served in a sweet sauce flavored with oranges.

Croissant              A flaky, buttery, yeast roll shaped like a crescent and made from a rolled in dough.

Custard                A liquid that is thickened or set by the coagulation of egg protein.

Dessert Syrup      A flavored syrup used to flavor and moisten cakes and desserts.

Devil’s Food Cake         A chocolate cake made with a high percentage of baking soda, which gives the cake a reddish tint.

Diastase               Various enzymes, found in flour and in malt that convert starch into sugars.

Disaccharide         A complex or double sugar such as sucrose.

Dobos Torte         A Hungarian cake made of seven thin layers filled with chocolate buttercream and topped with caramelized sugar.

Docking                Piercing or perforating pastry dough before baking in order to allow steam to escape and to avoid blistering.

Drained weight     The weight of solid canned fruit after draining off the juice.

Dredge                  To sprinkle thoroughly with sugar or some other dry powder.

Drop Batter          A batter that is too thick to pour but will drop from a spoon in lumps.

Dutch Process      Cocoa processed with an alkali to reduce its acidity.

Cocoa

Éclair Paste          A paste or dough made of boiling water or milk, butter, flour and eggs; used to make éclairs, cream puffs and similar products.

Emulsion              A mixture of two or more unmixable substances.

Endosperm           The starchy inner portion of grain kernels.

Extraction            The portion of the grain kernel that is separated into a particular grade of flour.

Fermentation        The process by which yeast changes carbohydrates into carbon dioxide gas and alcohol.

Foaming               The process of whipping air, with or without sugar, to incorporate air.

Fondant                A type of icing made of boiled sugar syrup that is agitated so that it crystallizes into a mass of extremely small white crystals.

Frangipane           A type of almond flavored cream.

French Pastry       A variety of small fancy cakes and other pastries, usually in single portion size.

French Style         Ice-cream containing egg yolks.

Ice-Cream

Fritter                   A deep fried item made of or coated with a batter or a dough.

Frozen Mousse     A still frozen dessert containing whipped cream.

Ganache               A rich cream made of sweet chocolate and heavy cream.

Gâteau                  French word for ‘cake’.

Gaufre                  French word for ‘waffle’.

Gelatinization       The process by which starch granules absorb water and swell in size.

Genoise                A sponge cake made with a batter containing melted butter.

Germ                    The plant embryo portion of a grain kernel.

Glacé                    1) Glazed; coated with icing. 2) Frozen.

Glaze                    1) A shiny coating, such as syrup, applied to a food. 2) To make a food shiny or glossy by coating it with a glaze or by browning it under a broiler or in a hot oven.

Gliadin                 A protein in wheat flours that combines with another protein glutenin to form gluten.

Gluten                  An elastic substance, formed from proteins present in wheat flours, that give structure and strength to baked goods.

Gram                    The basic unit of weight in the metric system; equal to about one-thirtieth of an ounce.

Granité                 A coarse, crystalline frozen dessert made of water, sugar and fruit juice or another flavoring.

Gum Paste            A type of sugar paste or pastillage made with vegetable gum.

Hard Sauce           A flavored mixture of confectioner’s sugar and butter; often served with steamed puddings.

Hard Wheat          Wheat high in protein.

Hearth Bread        A bread that is baked directly on the bottom of the oven, not in a pan.

High Ratio            1) Term referring to cakes and cake formulas mixed by a special method and containing more sugar than flour. 2) The mixing method used for these cakes. 3) Term referring to certain specially formulated ingredients used in these cakes, such as shortening.

Homogenized Milk         Milk that has been processed so that the cream does not separate out.

Hydrogenation     A process that converts liquid oils to solid fats (shortenings) by chemically bonding hydrogen to the fat molecules.

Ice                        A frozen dessert made of water, sugar and fruit juice.

Ice Cream             A churn-frozen mixture of milk, cream, sugar, flavorings, and sometimes eggs.

Icing Combs         A plastic triangle with toothed or serrated edges; used for texturing icings.

Inversion              A chemical process in which a double sugar splits in two simple sugars.

Invert sugar          A mixture of two simple sugars, dextrose and levulose, resulting from the breakdown of sucrose.

Italian Meringue   A meringue made by whipping boiling syrup into egg whites.

Japonaise             A baked meringue flavored with nuts.

Kernel Paste         A nut paste, similar to almond paste, made of apricot kernels and sugar.

Kilo                      Prefix in the metric system meaning “one thousand.”

Kirsch                  A clear alcoholic beverage distilled from cherries.

Kugelhopf            A type of rich, sweet bread or coffeecake usually made in a tube type pan.

Ladyfinger            A small, dry, finger-shaped sponge cake or cookie.

Langue-de-Chat    A thin, crisp cookie The French name means “cats tongue,” referring to the shape of the cookie.

Lean Dough          A dough that is low in fat and sugar.

Leavening             The production or incorporation of gases in a baked product to increase volume and to produce shape and texture.

Linzertorte            A tart made of raspberry jam and a short dough containing nuts and spices.

Liter                     The basic volume of unit in the metric system: equal to slightly more than a quart.

Macaroon             A cookie made of eggs (usually whites) and almond paste or coconut.

Malt Syrup           A type of syrup containing maltose sugar extracted from sprouted barley.

Marble                  To partly mix two colors of cake batter or icing so that the colors are in decorative swirls.

Marron                 French word for “chestnut.”

Marshmallow       A light confection, icing, or filling made of meringue and gelatin (or other stabilizers).

Marzipan              A paste or confection made of almonds and sugar and often used for decorative work.

Meal                     Coarsely ground grain.

Melba Sauce         A sweet sauce made of pureed raspberries and sometimes red currants.

Meringue              A thick, white foam made of whipped eggs and sugar.

Meringue Chantilly  Baked meringue filled with whipped cream

Meringue Glacée   Baked meringue filled with ice cream.

Meter                    The basic unit of length in the metric system; slightly longer than one yard.

Milli                     Prefix in the metric system meaning “one thousandth.”

Modeling Chocolate       A thick paste made of chocolate and glucose, which can be molded by hand into decorative shapes.

Molasses              A heavy brown syrup made from sugar cane.

Monosaccharide   A simple or single sugar such as glucose and fructose.

Mousse                 A soft cream dessert that is made light by the addition of whipped cream, egg whites, or both.

Napoleon             A desert made of layers of puff pastry filled with pastry cream.

Net Weight           The weight of total contents of a can or package.

No-Time Dough   A bread dough made with a large quantity of yeast and given no fermentation time expect for a short rest after mixing.

Nougat                 A mixture of caramelized sugar and almonds or other nuts used in decorative work and as a confection and flavoring.

Old Dough           A dough that is over-fermented.

One-Stage Method         A cookie mixing method in which all the ingredients are added to the bowl at once.

Othello                 A type of small (single-portion size), spherical sponge cake filled with cream and iced with fondant.

Oven Spring         The rapid rise of yeast goods in the oven due to the production and expansion of trapped gases caused by the oven heat.

Overrun                The increase in volume of ice cream or frozen desserts due to the incorporation of air while freezing.

Pain d’Epice         A type of gingerbread. French, meaning spice bread.

Palmier                 A small pastry or petit four sec made of rolled sugared puff pastry. Cut into slices and baked.

Parfait                  1) A type of sundae served in a thin tall glass. 2) A still frozen dessert made of egg yolk, syrup and heavy cream.

Paris-Brest           A dessert consisting of a ring of baked choux paste filled with cream.

Pasteurized           Heat-treated to kill bacteria that might cause disease or spoilage.

Pastillage              A sugar paste used for decorative work, which becomes very hard when dry.

Pastry Cream       A thick custard sauce containing eggs and starch.

Pastry Flour         A weak flour used for pastries and cookies.

Pâte à Choux        Éclair paste.

Pâte Feuilleté        French name for puff pastry.

Peel                      A flat wooden shovel used to place hearth breads in an oven and remove them.

Petit four              A delicate cake or pastry small enough to be eaten in one or two bites.

Petit Four Glacé   An iced or cream filled petit four.

Petit Four sec       An un-iced or unfilled petit four such as a small butter cookie or palmier (sec means dry).

Philadelphia Style          Ice-cream containing no eggs.

Ice-cream

Phyllo                   A paper-thin dough or pastry used to make strudels and various Middle Eastern and Greek desserts.

Piping Jelly          A transparent, sweet jelly used for decorating cakes.

Pithiviers              A cake made of puff pastry filled with almond cream.

Pot de Crème        A rich baked custard.

Pour Batter          A batter that is liquid enough to pour.

Praline                  A confection or flavoring made of nuts and caramelized sugar.

Press                    A scaled piece of dough that is divided into small, equal units in a dough divider.

Profiterole            A small puff made of éclair paste. Often filled with ice cream and served with chocolate sauce.

Puff Pastry           A very light, flaky pastry made from a rolled-in dough and leavened by steam.

Pulled Sugar         Sugar that is boiled to the hard-crack stage, allowed to harden slightly, then pulled or stretched until it develops a pearly sheen.

Pullman Loaf        A long, rectangular loaf of bread.

Pumpernickel Flour       A coarse, flaky meal made from whole rye grains.

Punching              A method of expelling gases from fermented dough.

Puree                    A food made into a smooth pulp, usually by being ground or forced through a sieve.

Retarding             Refrigerating a yeast dough to slow the fermentation.

Rice Condé           A thick, molded rice pudding, usually topped with fruit.

Rice Imperatrice   A rich rice pudding containing whipped cream, candied fruits, and gelatin.

Rich Dough          A dough high in fat, sugar, and/or eggs.

Rolled-in Dough   Dough in which a fat has been incorporated in many layers by using a rolling and folding procedure.

Rounding             A method of molding a piece of dough into a round ball with a smooth surface or skin.

Royal Icing           A form of icing made of confectioners’ sugar and egg whites; used for decorating.

Rye Blend            A mixture of rye flour and hard wheat flour.

Sabayon               A foamy dessert or sauce mad eof egg yolks whipped with wine or liqueur.

Sacristain             A small pastry made of a twisted strip of puff pastry coated with nuts and sugar.

St. Honoré            (1) A dessert made of a ring of cream puffs set on a short dough base and filled with a type of pastry cream (2) The cream used to fill this dessert, made of pastry cream and whipped cream and whipped egg whites.

Savarin                 A type of yeast bread or cake that is soaked in syrup.

Scaling                 Weighing, usually of ingredients, dough or batters.

Scone                   A type of biscuit or biscuit-like bread.

Scone Flour          A mixture of flour and baking powder that is used when very small quantities of baking powder are needed.

Sherbet                 A frozen dessert made of water, sugar, fruit juice and sometimes milk or cream.

Short                    Having a high fat content, which makes the product very crumbly and tender.

Shortbread           A crisp cookie made of butter, sugar and flour.

Shortening            1) Any fat used in baking to tenderize the product by shortening gluten strands. 2) A white, tasteless, solid fat that has been formulated for baking or deep-frying.

Simple Syrup       A syrup consisting of sucrose and water in varying proportions.

Soft Wheat           Wheat low in protein.

Solid Pack            A type of canned fruit or vegetable with no water added.

Sorbet                  French for sherbet.

Soufflé                  1) A baked dish containing whipped egg whites, which cause the dish to rise during baking. 2) A still frozen dessert made in a soufflé dish so that it resembles a baked soufflé.

Sourdough           1) A yeast type dough made with a sponge or starter that has fermented so long that it has become very sour or acidic. 2) A bread made with such a dough.

Sponge                 A batter or dough of yeast, flour and water that is allowed to ferment and is then mixed with more flour and other ingredients to make a dough.

Sponge cake         A type of cake made by whipping eggs and sugar to a foam, then folding in flour.

Sponge method    A cake mixing method based on whipped eggs and sugar.

Spun Sugar          Boiled sugar made into long, thin threads by dipping wires into the sugar syrup and waving them so that the sugar falls off and sets into fine strands.

Staling                  The change in texture and aroma of baked goods due to the loss of moisture by starch granules.

Stollen                  A type of sweet yeast bread made with fruit.

Straight flour        Flour made from the entire wheat kernel, minus the bran and germ.

Streusel                A crumbly topping for baked goods, consisting of fat, sugar and flour rubbed together.

Strong Flour         Flour with a high protein.

Strudel                 1) A type of dough that is stretched until paper thin. 2) A baked item consisting of a filling rolled up in a sheet of phyllo or strudel dough.

Sucrose                The chemical name for regular granulated sugar and confectioner’s sugar.

Swiss Roll            A thin sponge cake layer spread with a filling and rolled up

Syrup Pack          A type of canned fruit containing sugar syrup.

Tempering            The process of melting and cooling chocolate to specific temperatures in order to prepare it for dipping, coating or molding.

Torte                    German word for various types of cakes, usually layered cakes.

Tunneling             A condition of muffin products characterized by large, elongated holes; caused by over-mixing.

Turntable             A pedestal with a flat, rotating top, used for holding cakes while they are being decorated.

Two-Stage Method        A cake mixing method, beginning with the blending of flour and high-ratio shortening, followed by the addition of liquids. Also called the high-ratio method.

Vacherin               A crisp meringue shell filled with cream, fruits or other items.

Wash                    1) A liquid brushed onto the surface of a product, usually before baking.  2) To apply such a liquid.

Water Pack           A type of canned fruit or vegetable containing the water used to process the item.

Weak Flour          Flour with a low protein content.

Whole Wheat Flour       Flour made by grinding the entire wheat kernel, including bran and germ.

Young Dough       A dough that is under-fermented.

Zabaglione            An Italian dessert or sauce made of whipped yolks and Marsala wine.

Zest                      The outer colored portion of the peel of citrus.

SUNIL KUMAR

SIHM ROHTAK

2007-08

CHAPTER 29: BAKERY QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

 

1. What do you understand by he term syneresis in relation to bread?

Syneresis is the term given to a physical change that takes place in starch, gels etc, as they age. It is this change that brings about the staling of bread that is a day or two old, a sensation suggesting that bread contains less moisture. This change in starch is known as syneresis. It is affected by conditions of humidity and temperature in which bread is stored.

2. Why is salt used in bread making?

Salt is used because:

–         of its beneficial influence on flavor

–         it strengthens and stabilises the gluten, thus giving bulk to the bread.

–         it controls and prevents the excessive action of yeast

–         it hampers the growth of harmful bacteria, which would spoil the flavor of the bread.

3. Why is bread knocked back once, sometimes twice during fermentation?

When dough is knocked back (punched), a fresh supply of oxygen is given to the yeast, enabling it to work more vigorously and the excess of carbon di oxide is expelled. Also, during knocking back, the films of gluten are sub divided and therefore more evenly distributed. It also helps to relax the strained strands of gluten and this improves the texture of the bread.

4. Why is dough covered with a wet cloth during the period of resting?

The temperature of the dough is usually higher than the air surrounding it. The wet cloth helps to steady the temperature and thereby stabilise the fermentation. If left uncovered, the dough will warm the air that immediately surrounds it, causing it to expand and rise. A fresh current of air replaces it and this air will cause the surface of the dough to dry and form a skin. This skin, when mixed into the dough will cause ugly patches and will form cores, which are hard pellets of uncooked dough that is sometimes found in bread.

1. Why should all the materials used in cake making be approximately the same temperature?

By keeping all the materials at similar temperatures better aeration and easier, better and more thorough amalgamation is affected. Consequently, cakes will have a better appearance, volume and texture. Batters made with ingredients of varying temperatures become tough and undersized.

1. Why do cake batters sometimes ‘curdle’?

Cake batters curdle when fat separate from the water in the mixture and breaks the emulsion. It can occur due to:

–         hasty preparation and quick addition of the eggs

–         hard fat being used

–         too many eggs being used

–         high moisture content in the fat

1. Why do cakes sometimes sink in the center?

Cakes tend to sink in the middle because:

–         too much handling during the baking

–         too much baking powder is used.

–         If too much fat and sugar is used (in relation to the flour)

–         If the cake is removed from the oven before it is cooked (center is in a liquid or semi liquid state)

 

1.  Why do the fruit in a fruit cake tend to sink to the bottom?

To prevent fruit (dry) from sinking, make sure they are dry (often, fruit like cherries are soaked in sugar syrup) Moisture makes the fruit heavy and cause them to sink to the bottom. Coat the fruit with a sprinkling of flour before adding them to the batter. This flour will absorb the excess moisture. Fruits could also sink if the batter is too light to support the fruit during the baking. Over beating of the butter and sugar or the eggs cause excess air to be incorporated thus making the batter light. One more reason is the type of flour used. Harder flours are ideal for fruit cake, as the extra gluten formed will be able to hold the fruit in place. Sufficient gluten can also be developed for this purpose by working the batter after the flour has been added.

1. What happens to cake batters when put into the oven?

As soon as the oven door closed on the cake, the heat commences to melt the fat from the outside of the cake towards the inside. The raising agent produces carbon di oxide. As the temperature of the batter increases, some other starch cells begin to gelatinize. A skin forms on the top (due to the evaporation of moisture from the surface) and begins to color rapidly due to the caramelization of the sugar. The batter now begins to rise. The egg coagulates and begins to get firm. Gluten strands are strengthened. The entire product gets cooked to a firm sponge. To check whether the cake is cooked, the following tests can be done:

–         press the top center lightly and if it springs back, it is done

–         insert a cake tester, wooden skewer or a small knife in the center of the cake and if it comes out clean, it is done.

–         If the cake begins to leave the sides of the pan, it indicates doneness.

 

1. Why is an acidic medium like lemon juice or cream of tartar added to flour while making puff pastry?

An acidic medium is added to puff pastry because:

–         The acid makes the gluten in the flour more pliable and extensible and improves the ability to hold in the steam during the aeration while baking.

–         Acids reduce the PH and this aids the pastry in acquiring greater volume and the layers become more distinguishable, thinner and better baked.

1. Why should the dough and the fat be approximately the same consistency when making puff pastry?

Dough and the fat should be of the same consistency because if not, during the rolling, whichever were softer would be rolled much thinner. This will result with the fat tending to ooze out of the dough.

1. Why is puff pastry allowed to stand for half an hour before baking?

After a lot of the rolling and folding involved during the pre preparation of puff pastry, it is obvious that there will be considerable strength and elasticity in the gluten formed. This elasticity will cause the product to ‘draw up’ if it is not allowed a good rest before the baking. If it were baked immediately, the heat would soften it at once because of its decreased resistance to the pull exerted by the gluten and will become misshapen. In some cases, the filling will also ooze out.

13.What factors control the volume of choux pastry?

Egg albumin is extensible and will be inflated by internal pressures of gases, air and steam. Thus the pastry increases in volume and expansion ceases when the egg white loses their extensibility and gas holding power. Thus, the volume of choux pastry will depend only slightly upon the strength of the gluten n the flour but more on the gas holding power of the albumin in the egg. Therefore, fresh eggs are ideal for choux pastry, as the strength of the albumin is greater than that of aged or older eggs.

14  Why are ‘stale’ egg whites recommended in the making of meringues?

Stale refers to the fact that the egg whites have been exposed to air for some time. It does not refer to old eggs. Stale egg whites have less moisture due to evaporation, hence they whip better.

15. Why do Swiss rolls crack sometimes during rolling?

This happens because:

–  Too little egg in the mixture, hence less moisture  hence less pliable

–         Uneven spreading of the batter thus having thick and thin areas which will cause cracking.

–         Warped baking sheets/trays

–         Too hard flour

–         Too mixture on the tray, hence too thick and this will crack while rolling

–         Rolling is done too long after removing from the oven. This means evaporation of surface moisture leading to dryness and eventual cracking of the cake.

SUNIL KUMAR

SIHM ROHTAK

CHAPTER 30: GLOSSARY

Abbacchio: young lamb, specialty of Corsica.
A point: cooked medium rare.
Abat(s): organ meat(s).
Abati(s): giblet(s) of poultry or game fowl.
Abondance: firm thick wheel of cow’s-milk cheese from the Savoie, a département in the Alps.
Abricot: apricot.
Acacia: the acacia tree, the blossoms of which are used for making fritters; also honey made from the Blossom.
Acajou: cashew nut.
Achatine: land snail, or escargot, imported from China and Indonesia; less prized than other varieties.
Addition: bill.
Affamé: starving.
Affinage: process of aging cheese.
Affiné: aged, as with cheese.
Agneau (de lait): lamb (young, milk-fed).
Agneau chilindron: sauté of lamb with potatoes and garlic, specialty of the Basque country.
Agneau de Paulliac: breed of lamb from the southwest.
Agnelet: baby milk-fed lamb.
Agnelle: ewe lamb.
Agrume(s): citrus fruit(s).
Aïado: roast lamb shoulder stuffed with parsley, chervil, and garlic.
Aiglefin: aigrefin, églefin: small fresh haddock, a type of cod.
Aïgo bouido: garlic soup, served with oil, over slices of bread; a specialty of Provence.
Aïgo saou: “water-salt” in Provençal; a fish soup that includes, of course, water and salt, plus a mixture

of small white fish, onions, potatoes, tomatoes, garlic, herbs, and olive oil; specialty of Provence.
Aigre: bitter; sour.
Aigre-doux: sweet and sour.
Aigrelette, sauce: a sort of tart sauce.
Aiguillette: a long, thin slice of poultry, meat, or fish. Also, top part of beef rump.
Ail: garlic.
Aile: wing of poultry or game bird.
Aile et cuisse: used to describe white breast meat (aile) and dark thigh meat (cuisse), usually of chicken.
Aillade: garlic sauce; also, dishes based on garlic.
Aillé: with garlic.
Aillet: shoot of mild winter baby garlic, a specialty of the Poitou-Charentes region along the Atlantic

.
Aïoli, ailloli: garlic mayonnaise. Also, salt cod, hard-cooked eggs, boiled snails, and vegetables served

with garlic mayonnaise; specialty of Provence.
Airelle: wild cranberry
Aisy cendré: thick disc of cow’s-milk cheese, washed with eau-de-vie and patted with wood ashes; also

called cendre d’aisy: a specialty of Burgundy
Albuféra: béchamel sauce with sweet peppers, prepared with chicken stock instead of milk; classic sauce

for poultry.
Algue(s): edible seaweed.
Aligot: mashed potatoes with tomme (the fresh curds used in making Cantal cheese) and garlic; specialty

of the Auvergne.
Alisier, alizier: eau-de-vie with the taste of bitter almonds, made with the wild red serviceberries that

grow in the forests of Alsace.
Allumette: “match”; puff pastry strips; also fried matchstick potatoes.
Alose: shad, a spring river fish plentiful in the Loire and Gironde rivers.
Alouette: lark.
Aloyau: loin area of beef; beef sirloin, butcher’s cut that includes the rump and contre-filet.
Alsacienne, à l’: in the style of Alsace, often including sauerkraut, sausage, or foie gras.
Amande: almond.
Amande de mer: smooth-shelled shellfish, like a small clam, with a sweet, almost almond flavor.
Amandine: with almonds.
Ambroisie: ambrosia.
Amer: bitter; as in unsweetened chocolate.
Américaine, Amoricaine: sauce of white wine, Cognac, tomatoes, and butter.
Ami du Chambertin: “friend of Chambertin wine”; moist and buttery short cylinder of cow’s milk cheese

with a rust-colored rind, made near the village of Gevrey-Chambertin in Burgundy. Similar to Epoisses

cheese. Amourette(s): spinal bone marrow of calf or ox.
Amuse-bouche or amusegueule: “amuse the mouth”; appetizer.
Ananas: pineapple.
Anchoïade: sauce that is a blend of olive oil, anchovies, and garlic, usually served with raw vegetables;

specialty of Provence; also, paste of anchovies and garlic, spread on toast.
Anchois (de Collioure): anchovy (prized salt-cured anchovy from Collioure, a port town near the Spanish

border of the Languedoc), fished in the Atlantic and the Mediterranean.
Ancienne, à l’: in the old style.
Andouille: large smoked chitterling (tripe) sausage, usually served cold.
Andouillette: small chitterling (tripe) sausage, usually served grilled.
Aneth: dill.
Anise étoilé: star anise; also called badiane,
Ange à cheval: “angel on horseback”; grilled bacon-wrapped oyster.
Anglaise, à l’: English style, plainly cooked.
Anguille (au vert): eel; (poached in herb sauce).
Anis: anise or aniseed.
Anis étoilé: star anise.
AOC: see Appellation d’origine contrôlée.
Apéritif: a before-dinner drink that stimulates the appetite, usually somewhat sweet or mildly bitter.
Appellation d’origine contrôlée (AOC): specific definition of a particular cheese, butter, fruit, wine,

or poultry–once passed down from generation to generation now recognized by law–regulating the animal

breed or variety of fruit, the zone of production, production techniques, composition of the product,

its physical characteristics, and its specific attributes.
Arachide (huile d’; pâté d’): peanut (oil; butter).
Araignée de mer: spider crab.
Arbousier (miel d’): trailing arbutus, small evergreen shrubby tree of the heather family, also called

strawberry tree, ground laurel and madrona tree with strawberry-like fruit dotted with tiny bumps;

(honey of). Used for making liqueurs, jellies, and jams.
Arc en ciel (truite): rainbow (trout).
Ardennaise, à l’: in the style of the Ardennes, a département in northern France; generally a dish with

juniper berries.
Ardi gasna: Basque name for sheep’s-milk cheese.
Ardoise: blackboard; bistros often use a blackboard to list specialties in place of a printed menu
Arête: fish bone.
Arlésienne, à l’: in the style of Arles, a town in Provence; with tomatoes, onions, eggplant, potatoes,

rice, and sometimes olives.
Armagnac: brandy from the Armagnac area of Southwestern France.
Aromate: aromatic herb, vegetable, or flavoring.
Arômes à la gêne: generic name for a variety of tangy, lactic cheeses of the Lyon area that have been

steeped in gêne, or dry marc, the dried grape skins left after grapes are pressed for wine. Can be of

cow’s milk, goat’s milk, or a mixture.
Arosé(e): sprinkled, basted, moistened with liquid.
Arpajon: a town in the Ile-de-France; dried bean capital of France; a dish containing dried beans.
Artichaut (violet) artichoke (small purple) (camus) snub-nosed..
Artichaut à la Barigoule: in original form, artichokes cooked with mushrooms and oil; also, artichoke

stuffed with ham, onion, and garlic, browned in oil with onions and bacon, then cooked in water or white

wine; specialty of Provence.
Asperge (violette): asparagus (purple-tipped asparagus, a specialty of the Côte-d’Azur).
Assaisonné: seasoned; seasoned with.
Assiette anglaise: assorted cold meats, usually served as a first course.
Assiette de pêcheur: assorted fish platter.
Assoifé: parched, thirsty.
Assorti(e): assorted.
Aubergine: eggplant.
al of ail (garlic).
Aumônière: “beggar’s purse”; thin crêpe, filled and tied like a bundle.
Aurore: tomato and cream sauce.
Auvergnat(e): in the style of the Auvergne; often with cabbage, sausage, and bacon.
Aveline: hazelnut or filbert, better known as noisette.
Avocat: avocado.
Avoine: oat.
Axoa: a dish of ground veal, onions, and the local fresh chiles, piment d’Espelette; specialty of the

Basque region.
Azyme, pain: unleavened bread; matzo.

Baba au rhum: sponge cake soaked in rum syrup.
Badiane: star anise.
Baeckeoffe, baekaoffa, backaofa, backenoff: “baker’s oven”; stew of wine, beef, lamb, pork, potatoes,

and onions; specialty of Alsace.
Bagna caudà: sauce of anchovies, olive oil, and garlic, for dipping raw vegetables; specialty of Nice.
Baguette: “wand”; classic long, thin loaf of bread.
Baguette au levain or à l’ancienne: sourdough baguette.
Baie: berry.
Baie rose: pink peppercorn.
Baigné: bathed.
Ballotine: usually poultry boned, stuffed, and rolled.
Banane: banana.
Banon: village in the Alps of Provence, source of dried chestnut leaves traditionally used to wrap goat

cheese, which was washed with eau-de-vie and aged for several months; today refers to various

goat’s-milk cheese or mixed goat-and cow’s-milk cheese from the region, sometimes wrapped in fresh

green or dried brown chestnut leaves and tied with raffia.
Bar: ocean fish, known as loup on the Mediterranean coast, louvine or loubine in the southwest, and

barreau in Brittany; similar to sea bass.
Barbouillade: stuffed eggplant, or an eggplant stew; also, a combination of beans and artichokes.
Barbue: brill, a flatfish related to turbot, found in the Atlantic and the Mediterranean.
Barder: to cover poultry or meat with strips of uncured bacon, to add moisture while cooking.
Baron: hindquarters of lamb, including both legs.
Barquette: “small boat”; pastry shaped like a small boat.
Basilic: basil.
Basquaise, à la: Basque style; usually with ham or tomatoes or red peppers.
Bâtard, pain: “bastard bread”; traditional long, thin white loaf, larger than a baguette.
Batavia: salad green, a broad, flat-leafed lettuce.
Bâton: small white wand of bread, smaller than a baguette.
Bâtonnet: garnish of vegetables cut into small sticks.
Baudroie: in Provence, the name for monkfish or anglerfish, the large, firm-fleshed ocean fish also

known as lotte and gigot de met: also a specialty of Provence, a fish soup that includes potatoes, onions,

fresh mushrooms, garlic, fresh or dried orange zest, artichokes, tomatoes, and herbs.
Bavaroise: cold dessert; a rich custard made with cream and gelatin.
Bavette:skirt steak.
Baveuse: “drooling”; method of cooking an omelet so that it remains moist and juicy.
Béarnaise: tarragon-flavored sauce of egg yolks, butter, shallots, white wine, vinegar; and herbs.
Béatille: “tidbit”; dish combining various organ meats.
Bécasse: small bird, a woodcock.
Bécassine: small bird, a snipe.
Béchamel: white sauce, made with butter, flour, and milk, usually flavored with onion, bay leaf, pepper,

and nutmeg.
Beignet: fritter or doughnut.
Beignet de fleur de courgette: batter-fried zucchini blossom; native to Provence and the Mediterranean,

now popular all over France.
Belle Hélène (poire): classic dessert of chilled poached fruit (pear), served on ice cream and topped

with hot chocolate sauce.
Bellevue, en: classic presentation of whole fish, usually in aspic on a platter.
Belon: river in Brittany identified with a prized flat-shelled (plate) oyster.
Belondines: Brittany creuses, or crinkle-shelled oysters that are affinées or finished off in the Belon

river.
Berawecka, bierewecke, bireweck, birewecka: dense, moist Christmas fruit bread stuffed with dried

pears, figs, and nuts; specialty of Kaysersberg, a village in Alsace.
Bercy: fish stock-based sauce thickened with flour and butter and flavored with white wine and shallots.
Bergamot (thé a la bergamote): name for both a variety of orange and of pear; (earl grey tea.).
Berrichonne: garnish of bruised cabbage, glazed baby onions, chestnuts, and lean bacon named for the

old province of Berry.
Betterave: beet.
Beurre: butter.
demi-sel: butter (lightly salted).
blanc: classic reduced sauce of vinegar; white wine, shallots, and butter
cru: raw cream butter.
des Charentes: finest French butter, from the region of PoitouCharentes along the Atlantic coast.
de Montpellier: classic butter sauce seasoned with olive oil, herbs, garlic, and anchovies.
du cru: butter given the appellation d’origine contrôlée pedigree.
Echiré: brand of the finest French butter, preferred by French chefs, with an AOC pedigree, from the

region of Poitou-Charentes along the Atlantic coast.
noir: sauce of browned butter, lemon juice or vinegar, parsley, and sometimes capers; traditionally

served with raie, or skate.
noisette: lightly browned butter.
vierge: whipped butter sauce with salt, pepper, and lemon juice.
Bibelskäs, bibbelskäse: fresh cheese seasoned with horseradish, herbs, and spices; specialty of Alsace.
Biche: female deer.
Bien cuit(e): cooked well done.
Bière (en bouteille, à la pression): beer (bottled, on tap).
Bifteck: steak.
Bigarade: orange sauce.
Biggareau: red firm-fleshed variety of cherry
Bigorneau: periwinkle, tiny sea snail.
Bigoudène, à la: in the style of Bigouden, a province in Brittany; (pommes) baked slices of unpeeled

potato; (ragôut) sausage stewed with bacon and potato.
Billy Bi, Billy By: cream of mussel soup, specialty of the Atlantic coast.
Biologique: organic.
Biscuit à la cuillère: ladyfinger.
Bistrotier: bistro owner.
Blanc (de poireau): white portion (of leek).
Blanc (de volaille): usually breast (of chicken).
Blanc-manger: chilled pudding of almond milk with gelatin.
Blanquette: classic mild stew of poached veal, lamb, chicken, or seafood, enriched with an egg and cream

white sauce; supposedly a dish for convalescents.
Blé (noir): wheat (buckwheat).
Blette, bette: Swiss chard.
Bleu: “blue”; cooked rare, usually for steak. See also Truite au bleu.
Bleu d’Auvergne: a strong, firm and moist, flattened cylinder of blue-veined cheese made from cow’s

milk in the Auvergne, sold wrapped in foil; still made on some farms.
Bleu de Bresse: a cylinder of mild blue-veined cow’s-milk cheese from the Bresse area in the Rhône-Alps

region; industrially made.
Bleu de Gex: thick, savory blue-veined disc of cow’s-milk cheese from the Jura; made in only a handful

of small dairies in the département of the Ain.
Bleu des Causses: a firm, pungent, flat cylinder of blue-veined cow’s-milk cheese, cured in cellars similar

to those used in making Roquefort.
Blini: small thick pancake, usually eaten with caviar.
Boeuf à la ficelle: beef tied with string and poached in broth.
Boeuf à la mode: beef marinated and braised in red wine, served with carrots, mushrooms, onions, and

turnips.
Boeuf gros sel: boiled beef, served with vegetables and coarse salt.
Bohémienne, à la: gypsy style; with rice, tomatoes, onions, sweet peppers, and paprika, in various

combinations.
Boisson (non) comprise: drink (not) included.
Bolet: type of wild boletus mushroom. See Cèpe.
Bombe: molded, layered ice cream dessert.
Bonbon: candy or sweet.
Bon-chrétien: “good Christian”; a variety of pear, also known as poire William’s.
Bondon: small cylinder of delicately flavored, mushroomy cow’s-milk cheese made in the Neufchâtel

area in Normandy.
Bonite: a tuna, or oceanic bonito.
Bonne femme (cuisine): meat garnish of bacon, potatoes, mushrooms, and onions; fish garnish of shallots,

parsley, mushrooms, and potatoes; or white wine sauce with shallots, mushrooms, and lemon juice;

(home-style cooking).
Bordelaise: Bordeaux style; also refers to a brown sauce of shallots, red wine, and bone marrow.
Bouchée: “tiny mouthful”; may refer to a bite-size pastry or to a vol-au-vent.
Boudouses: literally, to pout; tiny oysters from Brittany that refuse to grow to normal size; iodine rich

and prized.
Bouchoteur: mussel fisherman; a dish containing mussels.
Boudin: technically a meat sausage, but generically any sausage-shaped mixture.
Boudin blanc: white sausage of veal, chicken, or pork.
Boudin noir: pork blood sausage.
Bouillabaisse: popular Mediterranean fish soup, most closely identified with Marseille, ideally prepared

with the freshest local fish, preferably rockfish. Traditionally might include dozens of different fish,

but today generally includes the specifically local rascasse (scorpion fish), Saint-Pierre (John Dory),

fiéla (conger eel), galinette (gurnard or grondin), vive (weever), and baudroie (monkfish) cooked in a

broth of water, olive oil, onions, garlic, tomatoes, parsley, and saffron. The fish is served separately

from the broth, which is poured over garlic-rubbed toast, and seasoned with rouille which is stirred

into the broth. Varied additions include boiled potatoes, orange peel, fennel, and shellfish. Expensive

shellfish are often added in restaurant versions, but this practice is considered inauthentic.
Bouilliture: eel stew with red wine and prunes; specialty of the Poitou-Charentes on the Atlantic coast.
Bouillon: stock or broth.
Boulangère, à la: in the style of the “baker’s wife”; meat or poultry baked or braised with onions and

potatoes.
Boule: “ball”; a large round loaf of white bread, also known as a miche.
Boule de Picoulat: meatball from Languedoc, combining beef, pork, garlic, and eggs, traditionally served

with cooked white beans.
Boulette d’Avesnes: pepper-and-tarragon-flavored cheese, made from visually defective Maroilles,

formed into a cone, and colored red with paprika; named for Avesnes, a village in the North.
Bouquet: large reddish shrimp. See also Crevette rose.
Bouquet garni: typically fresh whole parsley bay leaf and thyme tied together with string and tucked

into stews; the package is removed prior to serving.
Bouquetière: garnished with bouquets of vegetables.
Bourdaloue: hot poached fruit, sometimes wrapped in pastry often served with vanilla custard; often

pear.
Bourgeoise, à la: with carrots, onions, braised lettuce, celery and bacon.
Bourguignonne, à la: Burgundy style; often with red wine, onions, mushrooms, and bacon.
Bouribot: spicy red-wine duck stew.
Bourride: a Mediterranean fish soup that generally includes a mixture of small white fish, onions,

tomatoes, garlic, herbs, and olive oil, thickened with egg yolks and aïoli (garlic mayonnaise); there are

many variations.
Bourriole: rye flour pancake, both sweet and savory; specialty of the Auvergne.
Boutargue, poutargue: salty paste prepared from dried mullet or tuna roe, mashed with oil; specialty

of Provence.
Bouton de culotte: “trouser button”; tiny buttons of goat cheese from the Lyon area; traditionally

made on farms, aged until rock hard and pungent; today found in many forms, from soft and young to

hard and brittle.
Braiser: to braise; to cook meat by browning in fat, then simmering in covered dish with small amount

of liquid.
Branche, en: refers to whole vegetables or herbs.
Brandade (de morue): a warm garlicky purée (of salt cod) with milk or cream or oil, and sometimes

mashed potatoes; specialty of Provence; currently used to denote a variety of flavored mashed potato

dishes.
Brassado: a doughnut that is boiled, then baked, much like a bagel; specialty of Provence.
Brayaude, gigot: leg of lamb studded with garlic, cooked in white wine, and served with red beans,

braised cabbage, or chestnuts.
Brebis (fromage de): sheep (sheep’s-milk cheese).
Brési (Breuzi): smoked, salted, and dried beef from the Jura.
Bretonne, à la: in the style of Brittany; a dish served with white beans; or may refer to a white wine

sauce with carrots, leeks, and celery.
Bretzel: a pretzel; specialty of Alsace.
Brie de Meaux: “king of cheese,” the flat wheel of cheese made only with raw cow’s milk and aged at

least four weeks; from Meaux, just east of Paris; brie made with pasteurized milk does not have the

right to be called brie de Meaux.
Brie de Melun: smaller than brie de Meaux, another raw-cow’s-milk cheese, aged at least one month,

with a crackly rust-colored rind.
Brillat-Savarin: (1755-1826) famed gastronome, coiner of food aphorisms, and author of The Physiology

of Taste; the high-fat, supple cow’s-milk cheese from Normandy is named for him.
Brioche: buttery egg-enriched yeast bread.
Brocciu: soft, young, sheep’s milk cheese from Corsica.
Broche, à la: spit-roasted.
Brochet(on): freshwater pike (small pike).
Brochette: cubes of meat or fish and vegetables on a skewer.
Brocoli: broccoli
Brouet: old term for soup.
Brouillade: a mixture of ingredients as in a stew or soup; also, scrambled eggs.
Brouillé(s): scrambled, usually eggs.
Brousse: a very fresh and unsalted (thus bland) sheep’s- or goat’s-milk cheese, not unlike Italian

ricotta; specialty of Nice and Marseille.
Broutard: young goat.
Brugnon: nectarine.
Brûlé(e): “burned”; usually refers to caramelization.
Brunoise: tiny diced vegetables.
Brut: very dry or sugarless, particularly in reference to Champagne.
Buccin: large sea snail or whelk, also called bulot.
Bûche de Noël: Christmas cake shaped like a log (bûche), a sponge cake often flavored with chestnuts

and chocolate.
Buffet froid: variety of dishes served cold, sometimes from a buffet.
Bugne: deep-fried yeast-dough fritter or doughnut dusted with confectioner’s sugar; popular in and

around Lyon before Easter.
Buisson: “bush”; generally a dish including vegetables arranged like a bush; classically a crayfish

presentation.
Bulot: large sea snail or whelk, also called buccin.
Buron: traditional hut where cheese is made in the Auvergne mountains.

Cabécou(s): small, round goat’s-milk cheese from the southwest, sometimes made with a mix of goat’s

asque region, eglefin in Provence.
Cabri: young goat.
Cacahouète, cacahouette, cacachuète: prepared peanut–roasted, dry roasted, or salted. A raw peanut

is arachide
Cacao: cocoa; powdered cocoa.
Cachat: a very strong goat cheese; generally a blend of various ends of leftover cheese, mixed with

seasonings that might include salt, pepper, brandy and garlic, and aged in a crock; specialty of Provence.
Caen, à la mode de: in the style of Caen, a town in Normandy; a dish cooked in Calvados and white wine

and/or cider.
Café: coffee, as well as a type of eating place where coffee is served.
allongé: weakened espresso, often served with a small pitcher of hot water so clients may thin the

coffee themselves.
au lait or crème: espresso with warmed or steamed milk.
déca or décaféiné: decaffeinated coffee.
express: plain black espresso.
faux: decaffeinated coffee.
filtre: filtered American-style coffee (not available at all cafés).
glacé: iced coffee.
liègeois: iced coffee served with ice cream (optional) and whipped cream; also coffee ice cream

whipped cream.
noir: plain black espresso.
noisette: espresso with tiny amount of milk.
serré: extra-strong espresso, made with half the normal amount of water.
Caféine: caffeine.
Cagouille: on the Atlantic coast, name for small petit gris land snail, or escargot.
Caille: quail.
Caillé: clotted or curdled; curds of milk.
Caillette: round pork sausage including chopped spinach or Swiss chard, garlic, onions, parsley, bread,

and egg and wrapped in crépine (caul fat); served hot or cold; specialty of northern Provence.
Caisse: cash register; or cash desk.
Caissette: literally, “small box”; bread, brioche, or chocolate shaped like a small box.
Cajasse: a sort of clafoutis from the Dordogne, made with black cherries.
Cajou: cashew nut.
Calisson d’Aix: Delicate, diamond-shaped Provençal sweet prepared with almonds, candied oranges,

melon or abricots, egg white, sugar, and confiture of oranges or apricots.
Calmar: small squid, similar to encornet; with interior transparent cartilage instead of a bone. Also called chipiron in the southwest.
Calvados: a département in Normandy known for the famed apple brandy.
Camembert (de Normandie): village in Normandy that gives its name to a supple, fragrant cheese made of cow’s milk.
Camomille: camomile, herb tea.
Campagnard(e) (assiette): country-style, rustic; (an informal buffet of cold meats, terrines, etc.).
Campagne, à la: country-style.
Canada: cooking apple.
Canapé: originally a slice of crustless bread; now also used to refer to a variety of hors d’oeuvre consisting of toasted or fried bread, spread with forcemeat, cheese, and other flavorings.
Canard: duck.
Canard à la presse: roast duck served with a sauce of juices obtained from pressing the carcass, combined with red wine and Cognac.
Canard sauvage: wild duck, usually mallard.
Cancoillotte: spreadable cheese from the Jura; usually blended with milk, spices, or white wine when served.
Caneton: young male duck.
Canette: young female duck.
Cannelle: cinnamon.
Cannois, à la: in the style of Cannes.
Canon: the marrow bone
Cantal: large cylindrical cheese made in the Auvergne from shredded and pressed curds of cow’s milk.
Cantalon: smaller version of Cantal.
Cantaloup: cantaloupe melon.
Capilotade: basically any leftover meat or poultry cooked to tenderness in a well-reduced sauce.
Capre: caper.
Capucine: nasturtium; the leaves and flowers are used in salads.
Carafe (d’eau): pitcher (of tap water). House wine is often offered in a carafe. A full carafe contains one liter; a demi-carafe contains half a liter; a quart contains one-fourth of a liter.
Caraïbes: Caribbean, usually denotes chocolate from the Caribbean.
Caramelisé: cooked with high heat to brown the sugar and heighten flavor.
Carbonnade: braised beef stew prepared with beer and onions; specialty of the North; also refers to a cut of beef.
Cardamome: cardamon.
Carde: white rib, or stalk, portion of Swiss chard.
Cardon: cardoon; large celery-like vegetable in the artichoke family, popular in Lyon, Provence, and the Mediterranean area.
Cargolade: a copious mixed grill of snails, lamb, pork sausage, and sometimes blood sausage, cooked over vine clippings; specialty of Catalan, an area of southern Languedoc.
Carotte: carrot.
Carpe: carp.
Carpe à la juive: braised marinated carp in aspic.
Carré d’agneau: rack (ribs) or loin of lamb; also crown roast.
Carré de port: rack (ribs) or loin of pork; also crown roast.
Carré de veau: rack (ribs) or loin of veal; also crown roast.
Carrelet: see Plaice.
Carte, à la: menu (dishes, which are charged for individually, selected from a restaurant’s full list of offerings).
Carte promotionelle or conseillée: a simple and inexpensive fixed-price meal.
Carvi (grain de): caraway (seed).
Cary: curry.
Casher: kosher.
Casse-croûte: “break bread”; slang for snack.
Casseron: cuttlefish.
Cassis (crème de): black currant (black currant liqueur).
Cassolette: usually a dish presented in a small casserole.
Cassonade: soft brown sugar; demerara sugar.
Cassoulet: popular southwestern casserole of white beans, including various combinations of sausages, duck, pork, lamb, mutton, and goose.
Cavaillon: a town in Provence, known for its small, flavorful orange-fleshed melons.
Caviar d’aubergine: cold seasoned eggplant puree.
Caviar du Puy: green lentils from Le Puy, in the Auvergne.
Cébette: a mild, leek-like vegetable, sliced and eaten raw, in salads; native to Provence, but seen occasionally outside the region.
Cebiche: seviche; generally raw fish marinated in lime juice and other seasonings.
Cédrat: a variety of Mediterranean lemon.
Céleri (en branche): celery (stalk).
Céleri-rave: celeriac, celery root.
Céleri remoulade: popular first-course bistro dish of shredded celery root with tangy mayonnaise.
Cendre (sous la): ash (cooked by being buried in embers); some cheeses made in wine-producing regions are aged in the ash of burned rootstocks.
Cèpe: large, meaty wild boletus mushroom.
Cerdon: Bubbly (pétillant) wine (red or white?) from the Bugey
Céréale: cereal.
Cerf: stag, or male deer.
Cerfeuil: chervil.
Cerise: cherry.
Cerise noire: black cherry.
Cerneau: walnut meat.
Cervelas: garlicky cured pork sausage; now also refers to fish and seafood sausage.
Cervelle(s): brain(s), of calf or lamb.
Cervelle de canut: a soft, fresh herbed cheese known as “silkworker’s brains”; specialty of Lyon.
Céteau(x): small ocean fish, solette or baby sole, found in the gulf of Gascony and along the Atlantic coast.
Cévenole, à la: Cevennes style; garnished with chestnuts or mushrooms.
Chalutier: trawler; any flat fish caught with a trawl.
Champêtre: rustic; describes a simple presentation of a variety of ingredients.
Champignon: mushroom.
à la bague: parasol mushroom with a delicate flavor; also called coulemelle, cocherelle, and grisotte.
de bois: wild mushroom, from the woods.
de Paris: most common cultivated mushroom.
sauvage: wild mushroom.
Champvallon, côtelette d’agneau: traditional dish of lamb chops baked in alternating layers of potatoes and onions; named for a village in northern Burgundy.
Chanterelle: prized pale orange wild mushroom; also called girolle. Chantilly: sweetened whipped cream.
Chaource: soft and fruity cylindrical cow’s-milk cheese, with a 50 percent fat content; takes its name from a village in Champagne.
Chapeau: “hat”; small round loaf, topped with a little dough hat.
Chapelure: bread crumbs.
Chapon: capon, or castrated chicken.
Chapon de mer: Mediterranean fish, in the rascasse or scorpion-fish family.
Charbon de bois, au: charcoal-grilled.
Charentais: variety of sweet cantaloupe, or melon, originally from the Charentes, on the Atlantic coast.
Charlotte: classic dessert in which a dish is lined with ladyfingers, filled with custard or other filling, and served cold; in the hot version, the dish is lined with crustless white bread sautéed in butter, filled with fruit compote and baked. Also a potato variety.
Charolais: area of Burgundy; light colored cattle producing high-quality beef; also, firm white cylinder of cheese made with goat’s or cow’s milk, or a mixture of the two.
Chartreuse: dish of braised partridge and cabbage; also herb and spiced-based liqueur made by the Chartreuse monks in the Savoie.
Chasseur: hunter; also, sauce with white wine, mushrooms, shallots, tomatoes, and herbs.
Châtaigne: chestnut, smaller than marron, with multiple nut meats.
Chateaubriand: thick filet steak, traditionally served with sautéed potatoes and a sauce of white wine, dark beef stock, butter, shallots, and herbs, or with a béarnaise sauce.
Châtelaine, à la: elaborate garnish of artichoke hearts and chestnut purée, braised lettuce, and sautéed potatoes.
Chaud(e): hot or warm.
Chaud-froid: “hot-cold”; cooked poultry dish served cold, usually covered with a cooked sauce, then with aspic.
Chaudrée: Atlantic fish stew, often including sole, skate, small eels, potatoes, butter, white wine, and seasoning.
Chausson: a filled pastry turnover, sweet or savory.
Chemise, en: wrapped with pastry.
Cheval: horse, horse meat.
Cheveux d’ange: “angel’s hair”; thin vermicelli pasta.
Chèvre (fromage de): goat (goat’s-milk cheese).
Chevreau: young goat.
Chevreuil: young roe buck or roe deer; venison.
Chevrier: small, pale green, dried kidney-shaped bean, a type of flageolet.
Chichi: doughnut-like, deep-fried bread spirals sprinkled with sugar; often sold from trucks at open-air markets; specialty of Provence and the Mediterranean.
Chicons du Nord: Belgian endive.
Chicorée (frisée): a bitter salad green (curly endive); also chicory, a coffee substitute.Chicorée de Bruxelles: Belgian endive.
Chiffonnade: shredded herbs and vegetables, usually green.
Chinchard: also called saurel, scad or horse mackerel; Atlantic and Mediterranean fish similar to mackerel.
Chipiron (à l’encre): southwestern name for small squid, or encornet (in its own ink).
Chipolata: small sausage.
Chips, pommes: potato chips.
Chocolat: chocolate.
amer: bittersweet chocolate, with very little sugar.
au lait: milk chocolate.
chaud: hot chocolate.
mi-amer: bittetsweet chocolate, with more sugar than chocolat amer.
noir: used interchangeably with chocolat amer.
Choix, au: a choice; usually meaning one may choose from several offerings.
Chorizo: highly spiced Spanish sausage.
Choron, sauce: béarnaise sauce with tomatoes.
Chou: cabbage.
Chou de Bruxelles: brussels sprout.
Chou de mer: sea kale.
Chou de Milan: Savoy cabbage.
Chou-fleur: cauliflower.
Chou frisé: kale.
Chou-navet: rutabaga.
Chou-rave: kohlrabi.
Chou rouge: red cabbage.
Chou vert: curly green Savoy cabbage.
Choucas: jackdaw; European blackbird, like a crow, but smaller.
Choucroute (nouvelle): sauerkraut (the season’s first batch of sauerkraut, still crunchy and slightly acidic); also main dish of sauerkraut, various sausages, bacon, and pork, served with potatoes; specialty of Alsace and brasseries all over France.
Choux, pâte à: cream pastry dough.
Ciboule: spring onion, or scallion.
Ciboulette: chives.
Cidre: bottled, mildly alcoholic cider, either apple or pear.
Cigale de mer: “sea cricket”; tender, crayfish-like, blunt-nosed rock lobster.
Cîteaux: creamy, ample disc of cow’s-milk cheese with a rust-colored rind made by the Cistercian monks at the Abbaye de Cîteaux in Burgundy.
Citron: lemon.
Citron, orange, or pamplemousse pressé(e): lemon, orange, or grapefruit juice served with a carafe of tap water and sugar; for sweetening to taste.
Citron vert: lime.
Citronnelle: lemon grass, an oriental herb; also lemon balm (mèlisse).
Citrouille: pumpkin, gourd. Also called courge, potiron, potimarron.
Cive: spring onion.
Civelle: spaghetti-like baby eel, also called pibale.
Civet: stew, usually of game traditionally thickened with blood.
Civet de lièvre: jugged hare, or wild rabbit stew.
Civet de tripes d’oies: a stew of goose innards, sautéed in fat with onions, shallots, and garlic, then cooked in wine vinegar and diluted with water, and thickened with goose blood; from Gascony.
Clafoutis: traditional custard tart, usually made with black cherries; specialty of the southwest.
Claire: oyster; also a designation given to certain oysters to indicate they have been put in claires, or oyster beds in salt marshes, where they are fattened up for several months before going to market.
Clamart: Paris suburb once famous for its green peas; today a garnish of peas.
Clémentine: small tangerine, from Morocco or Spain.
Clouté: studded with.
Clovisse: variety of very tiny clam, generally from the Mediterranean.
Cocherelle: parasol mushroom with a delicate flavor; also called champignon à la bague, coulemelle, and grisotte.
Cochon (de lait): pig (suckling).
Cochonnaille(s): pork product(s); usually an assortment of sausages and/or pâtés served as a first course.
Coco blanc (rouge): type of small white (red) shell bean, both fresh and dried, popular in Provence, where it is a traditional ingredient of the vegetable soupe au pistou; also, coconut.
Coco de Paimpol: Cream-colored shell bean striated with purple, from Brittany, in season from July to November; the first bean in France to receive AOC.
Cocotte: a high-sided cooking pot (casserole) with a lid; a small ramekin dish for baking and serving eggs and other preparations.
Coeur: heart.
Coeur de filet: thickest (and best) part of beef filet, usually cut into chateaubriand steaks.
Coeur de palmier: delicate shoots of the palm tree, generally served with a vinaigrette as an hors d’oeuvre.
Coffre: “chest”; refers to the body of a lobster or other crustacean, or of a butchered animal.
Coiffe: traditional lacy hat; sausage patty wrapped in caul fat.
Coing: quince.
Col vert: wild (“green-collared”) mallard duck.
Colbert: method of preparing fish, coating with egg and bread crumbs and then frying.
Colère, en: “anger”; method of presenting fish in which the tail is inserted in the mouth, so it appears agitated.
Colin: hake, ocean fish related to cod; known as merluche in the North, merluchon in Brittany, bardot or merlan along the Mediterranean.
Colombe: dove.
Colombo: A mixture of spices, like a curry powder, used to season shellfish, meat or poultry. Like curry, the mix may vary, but usually contains tumeric, rice powder, coriander, pepper, cumin and fenugreek.
Colza: rape, a plant of the mustard family, colorful yellow field crop grown throughout France, usually pressed into vegetable (rapeseed) oil.
Commander avant le repas, à: a selection of desserts that should be ordered when selecting first and main courses, as they require longer cooking.
Complet: filled up, with no more room for customers.
Compote:stewed fresh or dried fruit.
Compotier: fruit bowl; also stewed ftuit.
Compris: see Service (non) compris.
Comté: large wheel of cheese of cooked and pressed cow’s milk; the best is made of raw milk and aged for six months, still made by independent cheesemakers in the Jura mountains.
Concassé: coarsely chopped.
Concombre: cucumber.
Conférence: a variety of pear.
Confiserie: candy, sweet, or confection; a candy shop.
Confit: a preserve, generally pieces of duck, goose, or pork cooked and preserved in their own fat; also fruit or vegetables preserved in sugar; alcohol, or vinegar.
Confiture: jam.
Confiture de vieux garçon: varied fresh fruits macerated in alcohol.
Congeler: to freeze.
Congre: conger eel; a large ocean fish resembling a freshwater eel (anguille); often used in fish stews.
Conseillé: advised, recommended.
Consommation(s): “consumption”; drinks, meals, and snacks available in a cafe or bar.
Consommé: clear soup.
Contre-filet: cut of sirloin taken above the loin on either side of the backbone, tied for roasting or braising (can also be cut for grilling).
Conversation: puff pastry tart with sugar glazing and an almond or cream filling.
Copeau(x): shaving(s), such as from chocolate, cheese, or vegetables.
Coq (au vin): mature male chicken (stewed in wine sauce).
Coq au vin jaune: chicken cooked in the sherry-like vin jaune of the region, with cream, butter; and tarragon, often garnished with morels; specialty of the Jura.
Coq de bruyère: wood grouse.
Coque: cockle, a tiny, mild-flavored, clam-like shellfish.
Coque, à la: served in a shell. See Oeuf à la coque.
Coquelet: young male chicken.
Coquillage(s): shellfish.
Coquille: shell.
Coquille Saint-Jacques: sea scallop.
Corail: coral-colored egg sac, found in scallops, spiny lobster, and crayfish.
Corb: a Mediterranean bluefish.
Coriandre: coriander; either the fresh herb or dried seeds.
Corne d’abondance: “horn of plenty”; dark brown wild mushroom, also called trompette de la mort.
Cornet: cornet-shaped; usually refers to foods rolled conically; also an ice cream cone, and a conical pastry filled with cream.
Cornichon: gherkin; tiny tart cucumber pickle.
Côte d’agneau: lamb chop.
Côte de boeuf: beef blade or rib steak.
Côte de veau: veal chop.
Côtelette: thin chop or cutlet.
Cotriade: a fish stew, usually including mackerel, whiting, conger eel, sorrel, butter, potatoes, and vinegar; specialty of Brittany.
Cou d’oie (de canard) farci: neck skin of goose (of duck), stuffed with meat and spices, much like sausage.
Coulant: refers to runny cheese.
Coulemelle: parasol mushroom with a delicate flavor; also called champignon à la bague, cocherelle, and grisotte.
Coulibiac: classic, elaborate, hot Russian pâté, usually layers of salmon, rice, hard-cooked eggs, mushrooms, and onions, wrapped in brioche.
Coulis: purée of raw or cooked vegetables or fruit.
Coulommiers: town in the Ile-de-France that gives its name to a supple, fragrant disc of cow’s-milk cheese, slightly larger than Camembert.
Courge (muscade): generic term for squash or gourd (bright orange pumpkin).
Courgette: zucchini.
Couronne: “crown”; ring or circle, usually of bread.
Court-bouillon: broth, or aromatic poaching liquid.
Couscous: granules of semolina, or hard wheat flour; also refers to a hearty North African dish that includes the steamed grain, broth, vegetables, meats, hot sauce, and sometimes chickpeas and raisins.
Couteau: razor clam.
Couvert: a place setting, including dishes, silver, glassware, and linen.
Couverture: bittersweet chocolate high in cocoa butter; used for making the shiniest chocolates.
Crabe: crab.
Crambe: sea kale, or chou de mer.
Cramique: brioche with raisins or currants; specialty of the North.
Crapaudine: preparation of grilled poultry or game bird with backbone removed.
Craquant: crunchy.
Craquelot: smoked herring.
Crécy: a dish garnished with carrots.
Crémant: sparkling wine.
Crème: cream.
aigre: sour cream.
anglaise: light egg-custard cream.
brulee: rich custard dessert with a top of caramelized sugar.
caramel: vanilla custard with caramel sauce.
catalane: creamy anise flavored custard from the southern Languedoc.
chantilly: sweetened whipped cream.
épaisse: thick cream.
fleurette: liquid heavy cream.
fouettée: whipped cream.
fraîche: thick sour; heavy cream.
pâtissière: custard filling for pastries and cakes.
plombières: custard filled with fresh fruits and egg whites.
Crêpe: thin pancake.
Crêpes Suzette: hot crêpe dessert flamed with orange liqueur.
Crépine: caul fat.
Crépinette: traditionally, a small sausage patty wrapped in caul fat; today boned poultry wrapped in caul fat.
Cresson(ade): watercress (watercress sauce).
Crête (de coq): (cock’s) comb.
Creuse: elongated, crinkle-shelled oyster.
Crevette: shrimp.
Crevette grise: tiny soft-fleshed shrimp that turns gray when cooked.
Crevette rose: small firm-fleshed shrimp that turns red when cooked; when large, called bouquet.
Crique: potato pancake from the Auvergne.
Criste marine: edible algae.
Croque au sel, à la: served raw, with a small bowl of coarse salt for seasoning; tiny purple artichokes and cherry tomatoes are served this way.
Croque-madame: open-face sandwich of ham and cheese with an egg grilled on top.
Croque-monsieur: toasted ham and cheese sandwich.
Croquembouche: choux pastry rounds filled with cream and coated with a sugar glaze, often served in a conical tower at special events.
Croquette: ground meat, fish, fowl, or vegetables bound with eggs or sauce, shaped into various forms, usually coated in bread crumbs, and deep fried.
Crosne: small, unusual tuber; with a subtle artichoke-like flavor; known as a Chinese or Japanese artichoke.
Crottin de Chavignol: small flattened ball of goat’s-milk cheese from the Loire valley.Croustade: usually small pastry-wrapped dish; also regional southwestern pastry filled with prunes and/or apples.
Croûte (en): crust; (in) pastry.
Croûte de sel (en): (in) a salt crust.
Croûtons: small cubes of toasted or fried bread.
Cru: raw.
Crudité: raw vegetable.
Crustacé(s): crustacean(s).
Cuillière (à la): (to be eaten with a) spoon.
Cuisse (de poulet): leg or thigh (chicken drumstick).
Cuissot, cuisseau: haunch of veal, venison, or wild boar.
Cuit(e): cooked.
Cul: haunch or rear; usually of red meat.
Culotte: rump, usually of beef.
Cultivateur: “truck farmer”; fresh vegetable soup.
Curcuma: turmeric.
Cure-dent: toothpick.

Damier: “checkerboard”; arrangement of vegetables or other ingredients in alternating colors like a checkerboard; also, a cake with such a pattern of light and dark pieces.
Darne: a rectangular portion of fish filet; also a fish steak, usually of salmon.
Dariole: truncated cone or oval-shaped baking mold.
Dartois: puff pastry rectangles layered with an almond cream filling as a dessert, or stuffed with meat or fish as an hors-d’oeuvre.
Datte (de mer): date (date-shaped prized wild Mediterranean mussel).
Daube: a stew, usually of beef lamb, or mutton, with red wine, onions, and/or tomatoes; specialty of many regions, particularly Provençe and the Atlantic coast.
Dauphin: cow’s-milk cheese shaped like a dauphin, or dolphin; from the North.
Daurade: sea bream, similar to porgy, the most prized of a group of ocean fish known as dorade.
Décaféiné or déca: decaffeinated coffee.
Décortiqué(e): shelled or peeled.
Dégustation: tasting or sampling.
Déjeuner: lunch.
Demi: half; also, an 8-ounce (250 ml) glass of beer; also, a half-bottle of wine.
Demi-deuil: “in half mourning”; poached (usually chicken) with sliced truffles inserted under the skin; also, sweetbreads with a truffled white sauce.
Demi-glace: concentrated beef-based sauce lightened with consommé, or a lighter brown sauce.
Demi-sec: usually refers to goat cheese that is in the intermediate aging stage between one extreme of soft and fresh and the other extreme of hard and aged.
Demi-sel (buerre): lightly salted (butter).
Demi-tasse: small cup; after-dinner coffee cup.
Demoiselle de canard: marinated raw duck tenderloin; also called mignon de canard.
Demoiselles de Cherbourg: small lobsters from the town of Cherbourg in Normandy, cooked in a court-bouillon and served in cooking juices. Also, restaurant name for Breton lobsters weighing 300 to 400 grams (10 to 13 ounces).
Dentelle: “lace”; a portion of meat or fish so thinly sliced as to suggest a resemblance. Also, large lace-thin sweet crêpe.
Dent, denté: one of a generic group of Mediterranean fish known as dorade, similar to porgy.
Dents-de-lion: dandelion salad green; also called pissenlit.
Dés: diced pieces.
Désossé: boned.
Diable: “devil”; method of preparing poultry with a peppery sauce, often mustard-based. Also, a round pottery casserole.
Dieppoise: Dieppe style; usually white wine, mussels, shrimp, mushrooms, and cream.
Digestif: general term for spirits served after dinner; such as Armagnac, Cognac, marc, eau-de-vie.
Dijonnaise: Dijon style; usually with mustard.
Dinde: turkey hen.
Dindon(neau): turkey (young turkey).
Dîner: dinner; to dine.
Diot: pork sausage cooked in wine, often served with a potato gratin; specialty of the Savoie.
Discrétion, à: on menus usually refers to wine, which may be consumed–without limit–at the customer’s discretion.
Dodine: cold stuffed boned poultry.
Dorade: generic name for group of ocean fish, the most prized of which is daurade, similar to porgy.
Doré: browned until golden.
Dos: back; also the meatiest portion of fish.
Doucette: see Mâche.
Douceur: sweet or dessert.
Douillon, duillon: a whole pear wrapped and cooked in pastry; specialty of Normandy.
Doux, douce: sweet.
Doyenné de Comice: a variety of pear.
Dugléré: white flour-based sauce with shallots, white wine, tomatoes, and parsley.
Dur (oeuf): hard (hard-cooked egg).
Duxelles: minced mushrooms and shallots sautéed in butter, then mixed with cream.

Eau du robinet: tap water.
Eau de source: spring water.
Eau-de-vie: literally, “water of life”; brandy, usually fruit-based.
Eau gazeuse: carbonated water.
Eau minérale: mineral water.
Echalote (gris): shallot (prized purplish shallot) elongated.
Echalote banane: banana-shaped onion.
Echine: sparerib.
Eclade de moules: mussels roasted beneath a fire of pine needles; specialty of the Atlantic coast.
Ecrasé: crushed; with fruit, pressed to release juice.
Ecrevisse: freshwater crayfish.
Effiloché: frayed, shredded.
Eglantine: wild rose jam; specialty of Alsace.
Eglefin, égrefin, aiglefin: small fresh haddock, a type of cod.
Elzekaria: soup made with green beans, cabbage, and garlic; specialty of the Basque region.
Embeurré de chou: buttery cooked cabbage.
Emincé: thin slice, usually of meat.
Emmental: large wheel of cooked and pressed cow’s-milk cheese, very mild in flavor, with large interior holes; made in large commercial dairies in the Jura.
Emondé: skinned by blanching, such as almonds, tomatoes.
En sus: see Service en sus.
Enchaud: pork filet with garlic; specialty of Dordogne.
Encornet: small illex squid, also called calmar; in Basque region called chipiron.
Encre: squid ink.
Endive: Belgian endive; also chicory salad green.
Entier, entière: whole, entire.
Entrecôte: beef rib steak.
Entrecôte maître d’hôtel: beef rib steak with sauce of red wine and shallots.
Entrée: first course.
Entremets: dessert.
Epais(se): thick.
Epaule: shoulder (of veal, lamb, mutton, or pork).
Épeautre : poor man’s wheat from Provence; spelt.
Eperlan: smelt or whitebait, usually fried, often imported but still found in the estuaries of the Loire.
Epi de maïs: ear of sweet corn.
Epice: spice.
Epigramme: classic dish of grilled breaded lamb chop and a piece of braised lamb breast shaped like a chop, breaded, and grilled; crops up on modern menus as an elegant dish of breaded and fried baby lamb chops paired with lamb sweetbreads and tongue.
Epinard: spinach.
Epine vinette: highbush cranberry.
Epoisses: village in Burgundy that gives its name to a buttery disc of cow’s milk cheese with a strong, smooth taste and rust-colored rind.
Epoisses blanc: fresh white Epoisses cheese.
Equille: sand eel, a long silvery fish that buries itself in the sand; eaten fried on the Atlantic coast.
Escabèche: a Provençal and southwestern preparation of small fish, usually sardines or rouget, in which the fish are browned in oil, then marinated in vinegar and herbs and served very cold. Also, raw fish marinated in lemon or lime juice and herbs.
Escalivada: Catalan roasted vegetables, usually sweet peppers, eggplant and onions.
Escalope: thin slice of meat or fish.
Escargot: land snail.
Escargot de Bourgogne: land snail prepared with butter; garlic, and parsley.
Escargot petit-gris: small land snail.
Escarole: bitter salad green of the chicory family with thick broad-lobed leaves, found in both flat and round heads.
Espadon: swordfish found in the gulf of Gascony, Atlantic, and Mediterranean.
Espagnole, à l’: Spanish style; with tomatoes, peppers, onions, and garlic.
Esqueixada: in Catalan literally means “shredded;” a shredded salt cod salad.
Estival: summer, used to denote seasonality of ingredients.
Estoficado: a purée-like blend of dried codfish, olive oil, tomatoes, sweet peppers, black olives, potatoes, garlic, onions, and herbs; also called stockfish niçoise: specialty of Nice.
Estofinado: a purée-like blend of dried codfish, potatoes, garlic, parsley, eggs, walnut oil, and milk, served with triangles of toast; specialty of the Auvergne.
Estouffade à la provençale: beef stew with onions, garlic, carrots, and orange zest.
Estragon: tarragon.
Etoffé: stuffed.
Etoile: star; star-shaped.
Etouffé; étuvé: literally “smothered”; method of cooking very slowly in a tightly covered pan with almost no liquid.
Etrille: small swimming crab.
Express: espresso coffee.

Façon (à ma): (my) way of preparing a dish.
Fagot: “bundle”; meat shaped into a small ball.
Faisan(e): pheasant.
Faisandé: game that has been hung to age.
Fait: usually refers to a cheese that has been well aged and has character—runny if it’s a Camembert, hard and dry if it’s a goat cheese; also means ready to eat.
Fait, pas trop: refers to a cheese that has been aged for a shorter time and is blander; also for a cheese that will ripen at home.
Falette: veal breast stuffed with bacon and vegetables, browned, and poached in broth; specialty of the Auvergne.
Fanes: green tops of root vegetables such as carrots, radishes, turnips.
Far: Breton sweet or savory pudding-cakes; the most common, similar to clafoutis from the Dordogne, is made with prunes.
Farci(e): stuffed.
Farigoule(tte): Provençal name for wild thyme.
Farine: flour.
complète: whole wheat flour.
d’avoine: oat flour.
de blé: wheat flour; white flour.
de maïs: corn flour.
de sarrasin: buckwheat flour.
de seigle: rye flour.
de son: bran flour.
Faux-filet: sirloin steak.
Favorite d’artichaut: classic vegetable dish of artichoke stuffed with asparagus, covered with a cheese sauce, and browned.
Favou(ille): in Provence, tiny male (female) crab often used in soups.
Fenouil: fennel.
Fer à cheval: “horseshoe”; a baguette that has that shape.
Féra, feret: salmon-like lake fish, found in Lac Léman, in the Morvan, in Burgundy, and in the Auvergne.
Ferme (fermier: fermière): farm (farmer); in cheese, refers to farm-made cheese, often used to mean raw-milk cheese; in chickens, refers to free-range chickens.
Fermé: closed.
Fernkase: young cheese shaped like a flying saucer and sprinkled with coarsely ground pepper; specialty of Alsace.
Feu de bois, au: cooked over a wood fire.s
Feuille de chêne: oak-leaf lettuce.
Feuille de vigne: vine leaf.
Feuilletage (en): (in) puff pastry.
Feuilletée: puff pastry.
Féves (févettes): broad, fava, coffee, or cocoa bean (miniature beans); also, the porcelain figure baked into the 12th night cake, or, galette des rois.
Fiadone: Corsican flan made from cheese and oranges.
Ficelle (boeuf à la): “string”; (beef suspended on a string and poached in broth). Also, small thin baguette. Also, a small bottle of wine, as in carafe of Beaujolais.
Ficelle picarde: thin crêpe wrapped around a slice of ham and topped with a cheesy cream sauce; specialty of Picardy, in the North.
Figue: fig.
Financier: small rectangular almond cake.
Financière: Madiera sauce with truffle juice.
Fine de claire: elongated crinkle-shelled oyster that stays in fattening beds (claires) a minimum of two months.
Fines herbes: mixture of herbs, usually chervil, parsley, chives, tarragon.
Flageolet: small white or pale green kidney-shaped dried bean.
Flamande, à la: Flemish style; usually with stuffed cabbage leaves, carrots, turnips, potatoes, and bacon.
Flamber: to burn off the alcohol by igniting. Usually the brandies or other liqueurs to be flambéed are warmed first, then lit as they are poured into the dish.
Flamiche (au Maroilles): a vegetable tart with rich bread dough crust, commonly filled with leeks, cream, and cheese; specialty of Picardy, in the North; (filled with cream, egg, butter, and Maroilles cheese).
Flammekueche: thin-crusted savory tart, much like a rectangular pizza, covered with cream, onions, and bacon; also called tarte flambée; specialty of Alsace.
Flan: sweet or savory tart. Also, a crustless custard pie.
Flanchet: flank of beef or veal, used generally in stews.
Flagnarde, flaugnarde, flognarde: hot, fruit-filled batter cake made with eggs, flour, milk, and butter, and sprinkled with sugar before serving; specialty of the southwest.
Flétan: halibut, found in the English Channel and North Sea.
Fleur (de sel): flower (fine, delicate sea salt, from Brittany or the Camargue).
Fleur de courgette: zucchini blossom.
Fleuron: puff pastry crescent.
Florentine: with spinach. Also, a cookie of nougatine and candied fruit brushed with a layer of chocolate.
Flûte: “flute”; usually a very thin baguette; also, form of champagne glass.
Foie: liver.
Foie blond de volaille: chicken liver; also sometimes a chicken-liver mousse.
Foie de veau: calf’s liver.
Foie gras d’oie (de canard): liver of fattened goose (duck).
Foin (dan le): (cooked in) hay.
Fond: cooking juices from meat, used to make sauces. Also, bottom.
Fond d’artichaut: heart and base of an artichoke.
Fondant: “melting”; refers to cooked, worked sugar that is flavored, then used for icing cakes. Also, the bittersweet chocolate high in cocoa butter used for making the shiniest chocolates. Also, puréed meat, fish, or vegetables shaped in croquettes.
Fondu(e): melted.
Fontainebleau: creamy white fresh dessert cheese from the Ile-de-France.
Forestière: garnish of wild mushrooms, bacon, and potatoes.
Fouace: a kind of brioche; specialty of the Auvergne.
Foudjou: a pungent goat-cheese spread, a blend of fresh and aged grated cheese mixed with salt, pepper, brandy, and garlic and cured in a crock; specialty of northern Provence.
Fougasse: a crusty lattice-like bread made of baguette dough or puff pastry often flavored with anchovies, black olives, herbs, spices, or onions; specialty of Provence and the Mediterranean. Also, a sweet bread of Provence flavored with orange-flower water, oil, and sometimes almonds.
Fouchtrou: Cow’s milk cheese from the Auvergne, made when there is not enough milk to make an entire wheel of Cantal.
Four (au): (baked in an) oven.
Fourme d’Ambert: cylindrical blue-veined cow’s-milk cheese, made in dairies around the town of Ambert in the Auvergne.
Fourré: stuffed or filled.
Foyot: classic sauce made of béarnaise with meat glaze.
Frais, fraîche: fresh or chilled.
Fraise: strawberry.
Fraise des bois: wild strawberry.
Framboise: raspberry.
Française, à la: classic garnish of peas with lettuce, small white onions, and parsley.
Frangipane: almond custard filling.
Frappé: usually refers to a drink served very cold or with ice, often shaken.
Frémi: “quivering”; often refers to barely cooked oysters.
Friandise: sweetmeat, petit four.
Fricadelle: fried minced meat patty.
Fricandeau: thinly sliced veal or a rump roast, braised with vegetables and white wine.
Fricassée: classically, ingredients braised in wine sauce or butter with cream added; currently denotes any mixture of ingredients–fish or meat–stewed ot sautéed.
Fricot (de veau): veal shoulder simmered in white wine with vegetables.
Frisé(e): “curly”; usually curly endive, the bitter salad green of the chicory family sold in enormous round heads.
Frit(e): fried.
Frite: French fry.
Fritons: coarse pork rillettes or a minced spread which includes organ meats.
Fritot: small organ meat fritter, where meat is partially cooked, then marinated in oil, lemon juice, and herbs, dipped in batter and fried just before serving; also can refer to any small fried piece of meat or fish.
Friture: fried food; also a preparation of small fried fish, usually white-bait or smelt.
Froid(e): cold.
Fromage: cheese.
blanc: a smooth low-fat cheese similar to cottage cheese.
d’alpage: cheese made in mountain pastures during the prime summer milking period.
Echourgnac: delicately flavored, ochre-skinned cheese made of cow’s milk by the monks at the Echourgnac monastery in the Dordogne.
fort: pungent cheese.
frais: smooth, runny fresh cheese, like cottage cheese.
Frais, bien égoutée: well-drained fresh cheese.
maigre: low-fat cheese.
Fromage de tête: headcheese, usually pork.
Fruit confit: whole fruit preserved in sugar.
Fruits de mer: seafood.
Fumé: smoked.
Fumet: fish stock.

Galantine: classical preparation of boned meat or whole poultry that is stuffed or rolled, cooked, then glazed with gelatin and served cold.
Galette: round flat pastry, pancake, or cake; can also refer to pancake-like savory preparations; in Brittany usually a savory buckwheat crêpe, known as blé noir.
Galette bressane, galette de Pérouges: cream and sugar tart from the Bresse area of the Rhône-Alpes.
Galette des rois: puff pastry filled with almond pastry cream, traditional Twelfth Night celebration cake.
Galinette: tub gurnard, Mediterranean fish of the mullet family.
Gamba: large prawn.
Ganache: classically a rich mixture of chocolate and crème fraïche used as a filling for cakes and chocolate truffles; currently may also include such flavorings as wild strawberries and cinnamon.
Garbure: a hearty stew that includes cabbage, beans, and salted or preserved duck, goose, turkey or pork; specialty of the southwest.
Gardiane: stew of beef or bull (toro) meat, with bacon, onions, garlic, and black olives; served with rice; specialty of the Camargue, in Provence.
Gargouillau: pear cake or tart; specialty of northem Auvergne.
Garni(e): garnished.
Garniture: garnish.
Gasconnade: roast leg of lamb with garlic and anchovies; specialty of the southwest.
Gaspacho: a cold soup, usually containing tomatoes, cucumber, onions, and sweet peppers; originally of Spanish origin.
Gâteau: cake.
basque: a chewy sweet cake filled with pastry cream or, historically, with black cherry jam; also called pastiza; specialty of the Basque region.
breton: a rich round pound cake; specialty of Brittany.
opéra: classic almond sponge cake layered with coffee and chocolate butter cream and covered with a sheet of chocolate; seen in every pastry shop window.
Saint-Honoré: classic cake of choux puffs dipped in caramel and set atop a cream-filled choux crown on a pastry base.
Gaude: thick corn-flour porridge served hot, or cold and sliced, with cream.
Gaufre: waffle.
Gave: southwestern term for mountain stream; indicates fish from the streams of the area.
Gayette: small sausage patty made with pork liver and bacon, wrapped in caul fat and bacon.
Gelée: aspic.
Gendarme: salted and smoked herring.
Genièvere: juniper berry.
Génoise: sponge cake.
Gentiane: gentian; a liqueur made from this mountain flower.
Germiny: garnish of sorrel. Also, sorrel and cream soup.
Germon: albacore or long-fin tuna.
Gésier: gizzard.
Gibassier: round sweet bread from Provence, often flavored with lemon or orange zest, orange-flower water, and/or almonds. Also sometimes called fougasse or pompe à l’huile.
Gibelotte: fricassee of rabbit in red or white wine.
Gibier: game, sometimes designated as gibier à plume (feathered) or gibier à poil (furry).
Gigot (de pré salé): usually a leg of lamb (lamb grazed on the salt meadows along the Atlantic and Normandy coasts).
Gigot de mer: a preparation, usually of large pieces of monkfish (lotte) oven-roasted like a leg of lamb.
Gigue (de): haunch (of) certain game meats.
Gillardeau: prized oyster raised in Normandy and finished in claires, or fattening beds on the Atlantic coast.
Gingembre: ginger.
Girofle: clove.
Girolle: prized pale orange wild mushroom; also called chanterelle.
Givré; orange givré: frosted; orange sherbet served in its skin.
Glace: ice cream.
Glacé: iced, crystallized, or glazed.
Gnocchi: dumplings made of choux paste, potatoes, or semolina.
Goret: young pig.
Gougère: cheese-flavored choux pastry.
Goujon: small catfish; generic name for a number of small fish. Also, preparation in which the central part of a larger fish is coated with bread crumbs, then deep fried.
Goujonnette: generally used to describe a small piece of fish, such as sole, usually fried.
Gourmandise(s): weakness for sweet things; (sweetmeats or candies).
Gousse d’ail: clove of garlic.
Gousse de vanille: vanilla bean.
Goût: taste.
Goûter (le): to taste, to try; (children’s afternoon snack).
Graine de moutarde: mustard seed.
Graisse: fat.
Graisserons: crisply fried pieces of duck or goose skin; cracklings.
Grand crème: large or double espresso with milk.
Grand cru: top-ranking wine.
Grand veneur: “chief huntsman”; usually a brown sauce for game, with red currant jelly.
Granité: a type of sherbet; a sweetened, flavored ice.
Grappe (de raisins): cluster; bunch (of grapes).
Gras (marché au): fatty; (market of fattened poultry and their livers).
Gras-double: tripe baked with onions and white wine.
Gratin: crust formed on top of a dish when browned in broiler or oven; also the dish in which such food is cooked.
Gratin dauphinoise: baked casserole of sliced potatoes, usually with cream, milk, and sometimes cheese and/or eggs.
Gratin savoyarde: baked casserole of sliced potatoes, usually with bouillon, cheese, and butter.
Gratiné(e): having a crusty, browned top.
Gratinée lyonnaise: bouillon flavored with port, garnished with beaten egg, topped with cheese, and browned under a broiler.
Grattons, grattelons: crisply fried pieces of pork, goose, or duck skin; cracklings.
Gratuit: free.
Grecque, à la: cooked in seasoned mixture of oil, lemon juice, and water; refers to cold vegetables, usually mushrooms.
Grelette, sauce: cold sauce with a base of whipped cream.
Grelot: small white bulb onion.
Grenade: pomegranate.
Grenaille: Refers to small, bite-size new potato of any variety.
Grenadin: small veal scallop.
Grenouille (cuisse de): frog (leg).
Gressini: breadsticks, seen along the Côte-d’Azur.
Gribiche, sauce: mayonnaise with capers, cornichons, hard-cooked eggs, and herbs.
Grillade: grilled meat.
Grillé(e): grilled.
Griotte: shiny slightly acidic, reddish black cherry.
Grisotte: parasol mushroom with a delicate flavor; also called champignon à la bague. cocherelle. and coulemelle.
Grive: thrush.
Grondin: red gurnard, a bony ocean fish, a member of the mullet family, used in fish stews such as bouillabaisse.
Groin d’ane: “donkey’s snout”; Lyonnais name for a bitter winter salad green similar to dandelion greens.
Gros sel: coarse salt.
Groseille: red currant.
Gruyère: strictly speaking, cheese from the Gruyere area of Switzerland; in France, generic name for a number of hard, mild, cooked cheeses from the Jura, including Comté, Beaufort, and Emmental.
Gyromite: group of wild mushrooms, or gyromitra, known as false morels.

Hachis: minced or chopped meat or fish preparation.
Haddock: small fresh cod that have been salted and smoked.
Hareng: herring, found in the Atlantic, the English Channel (the best between Dunkerque and Fécamp), and the mouth of the Gironde river.
Hareng à l’huile: herring cured in oil, usually served with a salad of warm sliced potatoes.
Hareng baltique, bismark: marinated herring.
Hareng bouffi: herring that is salted, then smoked.
Hareng pec: freshly salted young herring.
Hareng roll-mop: marinated herring rolled around a small pickle.
Hareng saur: smoked herring.
Haricot: bean.
beurre: yellow bean.
blancs (à la Bretonne): white beans, usually dried; (white beans in a sauce of onions, tomatoes, garlic, and herbs).
de mouton: stew of mutton and white beans (also called halicots).
gris: green string bean mottled with purplish black; also called pélandron: a specialty of the Côte-d’Azur.
rouge: red kidney bean; also, preparation of red beans in red wine.
sec: dried bean.
vert: green bean, usually fresh.
Hâtelet, attelet: decorative skewer; currently used to mean meat or fish cooked on a skewer.
Herbes de Provence: mixture of thyme, rosemary, summer savory, and bay leaf, often dried and blended.
Hirondelle: swallow.
Hochepot: a thick stew, usually of oxtail; specialty of Flanders, in the north.
Hollandaise: sauce of butter, egg yolks, and lemon juice.
Homard (à l’Amoricaine, à l’Américaine): lobster; (a classic dish of many variations, in which lobster is cut into sections and browned, then simmered with shallots, minced onions, tomatoes, Cognac, and white wine; served with a sauce of the reduced cooking liquid, enriched with butter).
Hongroise, à la: Hungarian style; usually with paprika and cream.
Hors-d’oeuvre: appetizer; can also refer to a first course.
Hortillon: picturesque market garden plot built between crisscrossed canals on the outskirts of Amiens, a city in the north.
Huile: oil.
d’arachide: peanut oil.
de colza: rapeseed oil.
de maïs: corn oil.
de noisette: hazlenut oil.
de noix: walnut oil.
de pépins de raisins: grapeseed oil.
de sésame: sesame oil.
de tournesol: sunflower oil.
d’olive (extra vierge): olive oil (extra virgin, or the first cold pressing).
Huître: oyster.
Hure de porc or de marcassin: head of pig or boar: usually refers to headcheese preparation.
Hure de saumon: a salmon “headcheese,” or pâté, prepared with salmon meat, not actually the head.
Hysope: hyssop; fragrant, mint-like thistle found in Provence, used in salads and in cooking.

Ile flottante: “floating island”; most commonly used interchangeably with oeufs à la neige, poached meringue floating in crème anglaise; classically, a layered cake covered with whipped cream and served with custard sauce.
Impératrice, à l’: usually a rice pudding dessert with candied fruit.
Imperiale: variety of plum. Also, a large bottle for wine, holding about 4 quarts (4 liters),
Impériale, à l’: classic haute cuisine garnish of mussels, cockscombs, crayfish, and other extravagant ingredients.
Indienne, à l’: East Indian style, usually with curry powder.
Infusion: herb tea.
Isman bayaldi, imam bayaldi: “the priest fainted” in Turkish; a dish of eggplant stuffed with sautéed onions, tomatoes, and spices; served cold.

Jalousie: “venetian blind”; classic small, latticed, flaky pastry filled with almond paste and spread with jam.
Jambon: ham; also refers to the leg, usually of pork, but also of poultry.
à l’os: ham with the bone in.
blanc: lightly salted, un-smoked or very lightly smoked ham, served cooked; sold, cold, in charcuteries as jambon de Paris, glacé, or demi-sel.
cru: salted or smoked ham that has been cured but not cooked.
cuit: cooked ham.
d’Auvergne: raw, dry, salt-cured smoked ham.
de Bayonne: raw, dry salt-cured ham, very pale in color.
de Bourgogne: See jambon persillé.
de montagne: any mountain ham, cured according to local custom.
de Paris: pale, lightly salted, cooked ham.
de Parme: Italian prosciutto from Parma, air-dried and salt-cured ham, sliced thin and served raw.
de pays: any country ham, cured according to local custom.
de poulet: boned stuffed chicken leg.
de Westphalie: German Westphalian ham, raw, cured, and smoked.
de York: smoked English-style ham, usually poached.
d’oie (or de canard): breast of fattened goose (or duck), smoked, salted, or sugar cured, somewhat resembling ham in flavor.
fumé: smoked ham.
persillé: cold cooked ham, cubed and preserved in parsleyed gelatin, usually sliced from a terrine; a specialty of Burgundy.
salé: salt-cured ham.
sec: dried ham.
Jambonneau: cured ham shank or pork knuckle.
Jambonnette: boned and stuffed knuckle of ham or poultry.
Jardinière: refers to a garnish of fresh cooked vegetables.
Jarret (de veau, de porc, de boeuf): knuckle (of veal or pork), shin (of beef).
Jerez: refers to sherry
Jésus de Morteau: plump smoked pork sausage that takes its name from the town of Morteau in the Jura; distinctive because a wooden peg is tied in the sausage casing on one end; traditionally, the sausage eaten at Christmas, hence its name; also called saucisson de Morteau.
Jeune: young.
Jonchée: rush basket in which certain fresh sheep’s- or goat’s-milk cheeses of Poitou (along the Atlantic coast) are contained; thus, by extension, the cheese itself.
Joue: cheek.
Julienne: cut into slivers, usually vegetables or meat.
Jurançon: district in the Béarn, the area around Pau in southwestern France, known for its sweet and spicy white wine.
Jus: juice.

Kataifi (also kataif), thin strands of vermicelli-like dough, used in Green and Middle Eastern pastries and in some modern French preparations
Kaki: persimmon.
Kari: variant spelling of cary.
Kiev: deep-fried breast of chicken stuffed with herb and garlic butter.
Kir: an aperitif made with crème de cassis (black currant liqueur) and most commonly dry white wine, but sometimes red wine.
Kir royal: a Kir made with Champagne.
Kirsch: eau-de-vie of wild black cherries.
Knepfla: Alsatian dumpling, sometimes fried.
Kougelhoph, hougelhof, kouglof, kugelhoph: sweet crown-shaped yeast cake, with almonds and raisins; specialty of Alsace.
Kouigh-amann: sweet, buttery pastry from Brittany.
Kummel: caraway seed liqueur.

Lactaire: the edible lactaire pallidus mushroom, also called sanguine. Apricot-colored, with red, blood colored juices when raw.
Laguiole: Cantal cheese from the area around the village of Laguiole, in southern Auvergne, still made in rustic huts.
Lait: milk.
demi-écremé: semi-skimmed milk.
écremé: skimmed milk.
entier: whole milk.
ribot: from Brittany, buttermilk, served with crêpes.
stérilizé: milk heated to a higher temperature than pasteurized milk, so that it stays fresh for several weeks.
Laitance: soft roe (often of herring), or eggs.
Laitier: made of or with milk; also denotes a commercially made product as opposed to fermier, meaning farm made.
Laitue: lettuce.
Lamelle: very thin strip.
Lamproie (à la bordelaise): lamprey eel, ocean fish that swim into rivers along the Atlantic in springtime (hearty stew of lamprey eel and leeks in red wine).
Lançon: tiny fish, served fried.
Landaise, à la: from the Landes in southwestern France; classically a garnish of garlic, pine nuts, and goose fat.
Langouste: clawless spiny lobster or rock lobster; sometimes called crawfish, and mistakenly crayfish.
Langoustine: clawed crustacean, smaller than either homard or langouste, with very delicate meat. Known in British waters as Dublin Bay prawn.
Langres: supple, tangy cylindrical cow’s-milk cheese with a rust-colored rind; named for village in Champagne.
Langue (de chat): tongue (“cat’s tongue”; thin, narrow, delicate cookie often served with sherbet or ice).
Languedocienne: garnish, usually of tomatoes, eggplant, and wild cèpe mushrooms.
Lapereau: young rabhit.
Lapin: rabbit.
Lapin de garenne: wild rabbit.
Lard: bacon.
Larder: to thread meat, fish, or liver with strips of fat for added moisture.
Lardon: cube of bacon.
Larme: “teardrop”; a very small portion of liquid.
Laurier: bay laurel or bay leaf.
Lavaret: lake fish of the Savoie, similar to salmon.
Léger (légère): light.
Légume: vegetable.
Lentilles (de Puy): lentils (prized green lentils from the village of Puy in the Auvergne).
Lieu jaune: green pollack, in the cod family a pleasant, inexpensive small yellow fish; often sold under name colin; found in the Atlantic.
Lieu noir: pollack, also called black cod; in the cod family a pleasant, inexpensive fish found in the English Channel and the Atlantic.
Lièvre (à la royale): hare (cooked with red wine, shallots, onions, and cinnamon, then rolled and stuffed with foie gras and truffles).
Limaces à la suçarelle: snails cooked with onions, garlic, tomatoes, and sausage; specialty of Provence.
Limaçon: land snail.
Limande: lemon sole, also called dab or sand dab, not as firm or prized as sole, found in the English Channel, the Atlantic, and, rarely, in the Mediterranean.
Lingot: type of kidney-shaped dry white bean.
Lisette: small maquereau, or mackerel.
Livarot: village in Normandy that gives its name to an elastic and pungent thick disc of cow’s-milk cheese with reddish golden stripes around the edge.
Lotte: monkfish or angler fish, a large firm-fleshed ocean fish.
Lotte de rivière (or de lac): fine-fleshed river (or lake) fish, prized for its large and flavorful liver. Not related to the ocean fish lotte, or monkfish.
Lou magret: breast of fattened duck.
Loup de mer: wolf fish or ocean catfish; name for sea bass in the Mediterranean.
Louvine: Basque name for striped bass, fished in the Bay of Gascony.
Lucullus: a classic, elaborate garnish of truffles cooked in Madeira and stuffed with chicken forcemeat.
Lumas: name for land snail in the Poitou-Charentes region along the Atlantic coast.
Luzienne, à la: prepared in the manner popular in Saint-Jean-de-Luz, a Basque fishing port.
Lyonnaise, à la: in the style of Lyon; often garnished with onions.

Macaron: macaroon, small cookie of almonds, egg whites, and sugar.
Macaronade: a rich blend of wild and domestic mushrooms and chunks of foie gras, smothered in fresh pasta; specialty of the southwest. Also, macaroni with mushrooms, bacon, white wine, and Parmesan cheese; an accompaniment to a beef stew, or daube; specialty of Provence.
Macédoine: diced mixed fruit or vegetables.
Mâche: dark small-leafed salad green known as lamb’s lettuce or corn salad. Also called doucette.
Mâchon: early morning snack of sausage, wine, cheese, and bread; also, the café that offers the snack; particular to Lyon.
Macis: mace, the spice.
Madeleine (de Commercy): small scalloped-shaped tea cake made famous by Marcel Proust; (the town in the Lorraine where the tea cakes are commercialized).
Madère: Madeira.
Madrilène, à la: in the style of Madrid; with tomatoes. Classically a garnish of peeled chopped tomatoes for consommé.
Magret de canard (or d’oie): breast of fattened duck (or goose).
Maigre: thin, non-fatty
Maïs: corn.
Maison, de la: of the house, or restaurant.
Maître d’hôtel: headwaiter. Also, sauce of butter, parsley and lemon.
Maltaise: orange-flavored hollandaise sauce.
Malvoisie, vinaigre de: vinegar made from the malvasia grape, used for the sweet, heavy Malmsey wine.
Mandarine: tangerine.
Mange-tout: “eat it all”; a podless green runner bean; a sweet pea; a snow pea. Also, a variety of apple.
Mangue: mango.
Manière, de: in the style of.
Maquereau: mackerel; lisette is a small mackerel.
Mara de Bois: small fragrant strawberry, like a cross between a domestic and wild strawberry.
Maraîchèr(e) (à la): market gardener or truck farmer (market-garden style; usually refers to a dish or salad that includes various greens).
Marbré: striped sea bream, Mediterranean fish that is excellent grilled.
Marc: eau-de-vie distilled from pressed grape skins and seeds or other fruits.
Marcassin: young boar. At one year, a wild boar will weight 40 kg, a domesticated boar 120 kg.
Marchand de vin: wine merchant. Also, sauce made with red wine, meat stock, and chopped shallots.
Marée la: literally “the tide”; usually used to indicate seafood that is fresh.
Marennes: flat-shelled green-tinged plate oyster. Also the French coastal village where flat-shelled oysters are raised.
Marinade: seasoned liquid in which food, usually meat, is soaked for several hours. The liquid seasons and tenderizes at the same time.
Mariné: marinated.
Marjolaine: marjoram. Also, multilayered chocolate and nut cake.
Marmelade: traditionally a thick purée of fruit, or sweet stewed fruit; today purée of vegetable, or stewed vegetables.
Marmite: small covered pot; also a dish cooked in a small casserole.
Maroilles: village in the north that gives its name to a strong-tasting, thick, square cow’s-milk cheese with a pale brick-red rind.
Marquise (au chocolat): mousse-like (chocolate) cake.
Marion (glacé): large (candied) chestnut.
Matelote (d’anguilles): freshwater fish (or eel) stew.
Matignon: a garnish of mixed stewed vegetables.
Mauviette: wild meadow lark or skylark.
Médaillon: round piece or slice, usually of fish or meat.
Mélange: mixture or blend.
Méli-mélo: an assortment of fish and/or seafood.
Melon de Cavaillon: small canteloupe-like melon from Cavaillon, a town in Provence known for its wholesale produce market.
Ménagère, à la: “in the style of the housewife”; usually a simple preparation including onions, potatoes, and carrots.
Mendiant, fruits du: traditional mixture of figs, almonds, hazelnuts, and raisins, whose colors suggest the robes of the mendicant friars it is named after.
Menthe: mint.
Merguez: small spicy sausage.
Merlan: whiting.
Merle: blackbird.
Merlu: hake, a member of the codfish family often sold improperly in Paris markets as colin; found in the English Channel, Atlantic, and Mediterranean.
Mérou: a large grouper, an excellent tropical or near-tropical fish, generally imported from North Africa but sometimes found in the Atlantic and Mediterranean.
Merveille: hot sugared doughnut.
Mesclum, mesclun: a mixture of at least seven multi-shaded salad greens from Provence.
Mets: dish or preparation.
Mets selon la saison: seasonal preparation; according to the season.
Méture: corn bread from the Basque region.
Meule: “millstone”; name for wheel of cheese in the Jura.
Meunière, à la: “in the style of the miller’s wife”; refers to a fish that is seasoned, rolled in flour, fried in butter; and served with lemon, parsley and hot melted butter.
Meurette: in, or with, a red wine sauce. Also, a Burgundian fish stew.
Mi-cru: half raw.
Mi-cuit: half cooked.
Miche: a large round country-style loaf of bread. Also, Basque name for aniseed cake-like bread.
Mie: interior or crumb of the bread (see Pain de mie).
Miel: honey
Mignardise: see Petit-four.
Mignon de canard: see Dcmsiselle de canard.
Mignonette: small cubes, usually of beef. Also refers to coarsely ground black ot white pepper.
Mijoté(e) (plat): simmered (dish or preparation).
Mille-feuille: refers to puff pastry with many thin layers; usually a cream-filled rectangle of puff pastry, or a Napoleon.
Mimosa: garnish of chopped hard-cooked egg yolks.
Minute (à la): “minute”; something quickly grilled or fried in butter with lemon juice and parsley (prepared at the last minute).
Mique: generally a large breaded dumpling, poached and served with stews and meats; specialty of the Southwest.
Mirabeau: garnish of anchovies, pitted olives, tarragon, and anchovy butter.
Mirabelle: small sweet yellow plum. Also, colorless fruit brandy or eau-de-vie, made from yellow plums.
Mirepoix: cubes of carrots and onions or mixed vegetables, usually used in braising to boost the flavor of a meat dish.
Miroir: “mirror”; a dish that has a smooth glaze; currently a fruit mousse cake with a layer of fruit glaze on top.
Miroton (de): slice (of). Also, stew of meats flavored with onions.
Mitonnée: a simmered, soup-like dish.
Mode de, à la: in the style of.
Moëlle: beef bone marrow.
Mogette, mojette mougette: a kind of dried white bean from the Atlantic coast.
Moka: refers to Coffee; coffee-flavored dish.
Mollusque: mollusk.
Mont blanc: rich classic pastry of baked meringue, chestnut purée, and whipped cream.
Montagne, de la: from the mountains.
Montmorency: garnished with cherries; historically a village known for its cherries, now a suburb of Paris.
Morbier: supple cow’s-milk cheese from the Jura; a thin sprinkling of ashes in the center gives it its distinctive black stripe and light smoky flavor.
Morceau: piece or small portion.
Morille: wild morel mushroom, dark brown and conical.
Mornay: classic cream sauce enriched with egg yolks and cheese.
Morue: salt cod; also currently used to mean fresh cod, which is cabillaud.
Morvandelle, jambon à la: in the style of the Morvan (ham in a piquant creamy sauce made with white wine, vinegar, juniper berries, shallots, and cream).
Morvandelle, râpée: grated potato mixed with eggs, cream, and cheese, baked until golden.
Mosaïque: “mosaic;” a presentation of mixed ingredients.
Mostèle: forkbeard mostelle; small Mediterranean fish of the cod family.
Mouclade: creamy mussel stew from the Poitou-Charentes on the Atlantic Coast, generally flavored with curry or saffron.
Moufflon: wild sheep.
Moule: mussel. Also a mold.
Moule de bouchot: small, highly prized cultivated mussel, raised on stakes driven into the sediment of shallow coastal beds.
Moule de Bouzigues: iodine-strong mussel from the village of Bouzigues, on the Mediterranean coast.
Moule d’Espagne: large, sharp-shelled mussel, often served raw as part of a seafood platter.
Moule de parques: Dutch cultivated mussel, usually raised in fattening beds or diverted ponds.
Moules marinière: mussels cooked in white wine with onions, shallots, butter, and herbs.
Moulin (à poivre): mill (peppermill); also used for oil and flour mills.
Mourone: Basque name for red bell pepper.
Mourtayrol, mourtaïrol: a pot-au-feu of boiled beef, chicken, ham, and vegetables, flavored with saffron and served over slices of bread; specialty of the Auvergne.
Mousse: light, airy mixture usually containing eggs and cream, either sweet or savory.
Mousseline: refers to ingredients that are usually lightened with whipped cream or egg whites, as in sauces, or with butter, as in brioche mousseline.
Mousseron: tiny, delicate, wild mushroom.
Moutarde (à l’ancienne, en graines): mustard (old-style, coarse-grained).
Mouton: mutton.
Muge: grey mullet.
Mulard: breed of duck common to the southwest, fattened for its delicate liver, for foie gras.
Mulet: the generic group of mullet, found in the English Channel, Atlantic, and Mediterranean.
Munster: village in Alsace that gives its name to a disc of soft, tangy cow’s-milk cheese with a brick red rind and a penetrating aroma; the cheese is also sometimes cured with cumin seeds.
Mûre (de ronces): blackberry (bush).
Muscade: nutmeg.
Muscat de Hamb0ourg: variety of popular purple table grape, grown in Provence.
Museau de porc (or de boeuf): vinegared pork (or beef) muzzle.
Myrtille: bilberry (bluish black European blueberry).
Mystère: truncated cone-shaped ice cream dessert. Also, dessert of cooked meringue with ice cream and chocolate cake.

Nage (à la): “swimming”; aromatic poaching liquid (served in).
Nantua: sauce of crayfish, butter, cream, and, traditionally truffles; also garnish of crayfish.
Nappé: covered, as with a sauce.
Natte: woven loaf of bread.
Nature: refers to simple, unadorned preparations.
Navarin: lamb or mutton stew.
Navarraise, à la: Navarre-style, with sweet peppers, onions, and garlic.
Navet: turnip.
Navette: “little boat”; small pastry boats.
Nèfle: medlar; also called Japanese loquat; tart fruit that resembles an apricot and taste like a mango.
Neufchâtel: white, creamy, delicate (and often heart-shaped) cow’s-milk cheese, named for village in Normandy where it is made.
Newburg: lobster preparation with Madeira, egg yolks, and cream.
Nivernaise, à la: in the style of Nevers; with carrots and onions.
Noilly: a vermouth-based sauce.
Noisette: hazelnut; also refers to small round piece (such as from a potato), generally the size of a hazelnut, lightly browned in butter. Also, center cut of lamb chop. Also, dessert flavored with hazelnuts.
Noix: general term for nut; also, walnut. Also, nut-size, typically une noix de beurre, or lump of butter.
Non compris: see Service (non) compris.
Nonat: small river fish in Provence, usually fried. Also known as poutine.
Normande: in the style of Normandy; sauce of seafood, cream, and mushrooms. Also refers to fish or meat cooked with apple cider or Calvados; or dessert with apples, usually served with cream.
Note: another word for addition, bill or tab.
Nougat: candy of roasted almonds, egg whites, and honey; specialty of Montélimar.
Nougat glacé: frozen dessert of whipped cream and candied fruit.
Nouilles: noodles.
Nouveau, nouvelle: new or young.
Nouveauté: a new offering.

Oeuf: egg.
à la coque: soft-cooked egg.
brouillé: scrambled egg.
dur: hard-cooked egg.
en meurette: poached egg in red wine sauce.
mollet: egg simmered in water for 6 minutes.
poché: poached egg.
sauté à la poêle or oeuf sur le plat: fried egg.
Oeufs à la neige: “eggs in the snow”; sweetened whipped egg whites poached in milk and served with vanilla custard sauce.
Offert: offered; free or given.
Oie: goose.
Oignon: onion.
Oiselle: sorrel.
Olive noire (verte): black olive (green olive).
Olives cassées: fresh green olives cured in a rich fennel-infused brine; specialty of Provence.
Olive de Nyons: wrinkled black olive, first olive in France to receive AOC. Also used for oil.
Omble (ombre) chevalier: lake fish, similar to salmon trout, with firm, flaky flesh varying from white to deep red. Found in lakes in the Savoie.
Omelette norvegienne: French version of Baked Alaska; a concoction of sponge cake covered with ice cream and a layer of sweetened, stiffly beaten egg whites, then browned quickly in the oven.
Onglet: cut similar to beef flank steak; also cut of beef sold as biftek and entrecôte, usually a tough cut, but better than flank steak.
Oreille de porc: cooked pig’s ear; served grilled, with a coating of egg and bread crumb.
Oreillette: thin, crisp rectangular dessert fritters, flavored with orange-flower water; specialty of Provence.
Orge (perlé): barley (pearl barley).
Orientale, à l’: general name for vaguely Eastern dishes cooked with saffron, tomatoes, and sweet red peppers.
Origan: oregano.
Ortie: Nettle.
Oseille: sorrel.
Osso bucco à la niçoise: sautéed veal braised with tomatoes, garlic, onions, and orange zest; specialty of the Mediterranean.
Ostréiculteur: Oyster grower.
Oursin: sea urchin.
Oursinade: creamy sea urchin soup.
Ouvert: open.

Pageot: a type of sea bream or porgy. The finest is pageot rouge, wonderful grilled. Pageot blanc is drier and needs to be marinated in oil before cooking.
Paillarde (de veau): thick slice (of veal); also, piece of meat pounded flat and sauteéed.
Pailles (pommes): fried potato sticks.
Paillette: cheese straw, usually made with puff pastry and Parmesan cheese.
Pain: bread. Also, loaf of any kind.
aux cinq céréales: five-grain bread.
aux noix (aux noisettes): bread, most often rye or wheat, filled with walnuts (hazelnuts).
aux raisins: bread, most often rye or wheat, filled with raisins.
azyme: unleavened bread, matzoh.
bis: brown bread.
brié: very dense, elongated loaf of unsalted white bread; specialty of Normandy.
complet: bread made partially or entirely from whole-wheat flour, with bakers varying proportions according to their personal tastes.
cordon: seldom-found regional country loaf decorated with a strip of dough.
d’Aix: variously shaped sourdough loaves, sometimes like a sunflower, other times a chain-like loaf of four linked rounds.
de campagne: country loaf; can vary from a white bread simply dusted with flour to give it a rustic look (and fetch a higher price) to a truly hearty loaf that may be a blend of white, whole wheat, and perhaps rye flour with bran added. Comes in every shape.
Décoré: decorated.
de fantaisie: generally any odd or imaginatively shaped bread. Even baguette de campagne falls into this category.
de Gênes: classic almond sponge cake.
de mie: rectangular white sandwich loaf that is nearly all mie (interior crumb) and very little crust. It is made for durability, its flavor and texture developed for use in sandwiches. Unlike most French breads, it contains milk, sugar, and butter, and may contain chemical preservatives.
d’épices: spice bread, a specialty of Dijon.
de seigle: bread made from 60 to 70 percent rye flour and 30 to 40 percent wheat flour.
de son: legally a dietetic bread that is quality controlled, containing 20 percent bran mixed with white flour.
grillé: toast.
paillé: country loaf from the Basque region.
sans sel: salt-free bread.
viennois: bread shaped like a baguette, with regular horizontal slashes, usually containing white flour, sugar, powdered milk, water, and yeast.
Paleron: shoulder of beef.
Palette: upper shoulder of pork.
Palestine: classically a garnish of Jerusalem artichokes.
Palmier: palm leaf-shaped cookie made of sugared puff pastry.
Palmier, coeur de: heart of palm.
Palombe: wood or wild pigeon, or dove.
Palourde: prized medium-size clam.
Pamplemousse: grapefruit.
Pan bagna: large round bread roll, split, brushed with olive oil, and filled with a variable mixture including anchovies, onions, black olives, green peppers, tomatoes, and celery; cafe specialty from Nice.
Panaché: mixed; now liberally used menu term to denote any mixture.
Panade: panada, a thick mixture used to bind forcemeats and quenelles, usually flour and butter based, but can also contain fresh or toasted bread crumbs, rice, or potatoes. Also refers to soup of bread, milk, and sometimes cheese.
Panais: parnsip.
Pané(e): breaded.
Panisse: a thick fried pancake of chickpea flour, served as accompaniment to meat; specialty of Provence.
Pannequet: rolled crêpe, filled and/or covered with sweet or savory mixture.
Panoufle: Generally discarded belly flap from saddle of lamb, veal, and beef; sometimes grilled.
Pantin: small pork pastry.
Papeton: eggplant, fried, puréed, and cooked in a ring mold; specialty of Provence.
Papillon: “butterfly”; small crinkle-shelled creuse oyster from the Atlantic coast.
Papillote, en: cooked in parchment paper or foil wrapping.
Paquet (en): (in) a package or parcel.
Parfait: a dessert mousse; also, mousse-like mixture of chicken, duck, or goose liver.
Parfum: flavor.
Paris-Brest, gâteau: classic, large, crown-shaped choux pastry filled with praline butter cream and topped with chopped almonds.
Parisienne, à la: varied vegetable garnish which generally includes potato balls that have been fried and tossed in a meat glaze.
Parmentier: dish with potatoes.
Passe Crassane: flavorful variety of winter pear.
Passe-Pierre: edible seaweed.
Pastèque: watermelon.
Pastis: anise-flavored alcohol that becomes cloudy when water is added (the most famous brands are Pernod and Ricard). Also, name for tourtière, the flaky prune pastry from the southwest.
Pastiza: see gâteau basque.
Pata Négra (jambon): Prized ham from Spain, literally “black feet.”
Patagos: clam.
Pâte: pastry or dough.
brisée: pie pastry
d’amande: almond paste.
sablée: sweeter, richer, and more crumbly pie dough than pâte sucrée, sometimes leavened.
sucrée: sweet pie pastry.
Pâté: minced meat that is molded, spiced, baked, and served hot or cold.
Pâtes (fraîches): pasta (fresh).
Patte blanche: small crayfish no larger than 2 1/2 ounces (75 g).
Patte rouge: large crayfish.
Pauchouse, pochouse: stew of river fish that generally includes tanche (tench), perche (perch), brochet (pike), and anguille (eel); specialty of Burgundy
Paupiette: slice of meat or fish, filled, rolled, then wrapped; served warm.
Pavé: “paving stone”; usually a thick slice of boned beef or calf’s liver. Also, a kind of pastry.
Pavé d’Auge: thick, ochre colored square of cow’s-milk cheese that comes from the Auge area of Normandy.
Pavot (graine de): poppy (seed).
Paysan(ne) (à la): country style; (garnish of carrots, turnips, onions, celery and bacon).
Peau: skin.
Pèbre d’ail: see Poivre d’âne.
Pêche: peach. Also, fishing.
Pêche Alexandra: cold dessert of poached peaches with ice cream and puréed strawberries.
Pêche Melba: poached peach with vanilla ice cream and raspberry sauce.
Pêcheur: “fisherman”; usually refers to fish preparations.
Pélandron: see haricot gris.
Pélardon: small flat, dried, pungent disc of goat’s milk cheese; specialty of the Languedoc.
Pèlerine: another name for scallop or coquille Saint-Jacques.
Péptie (au chocolat): nugget; (chocolate chip).
Pequillo: small red Spanish pepper, usually stuffed with salt cod purée.
Perce-pierre: samphire, edible seaweed.
Perche: perch.
Perdreau: young partridge.
Perdrix: partridge.
Périgourdine, à la, or Périgueux: sauce, usually with truffles and foie gras, named for the Périgord in southwestern France.
Persil (simple): parsley (flatleaf).
Persillade: blend of chopped parsley and garlic.
Persillé: “parsleyed”; describes certain blue-veined cheeses. See also Jambon persillé.
Pet de nonne: “nun’s fart”; small, dainty beignets, or fried pastry.
Pétale: “petal”; very thin slice.
Petit-beurre: popular tea cookie made with butter.
Petit déjeuner: breakfast.
Petit-four (sucré or salée): tiny cake or pastry (sweet or savory); in elegant restaurants, served with cocktails before dinner or with coffee afterward; also called mignardise.
Petit-gris: small land snail.
Petit-pois: small green pea.
Petit salé: salt-cured portions of lean pork belly, often served with lentils.
Petite marmite: earthenware casserole; the broth served from it.
Pétoncle: tiny scallop, similar to American bay scallop.
Pibale: tiny eel, also called civelle.
Picholine, pitchouline: a variety of green olive, generally used to prepare olives casseés; specialty of Provence.
Picodon (méthode Dieulefit): small disc of goat’s-milk cheese, the best of which (qualified as méthode Dieulefit) is hard, piquant, and pungent from having soaked in brandy and aged a month in earthenware jars; specialty of northern Provence.
Pièce: portion, piece.
Piech: poached veal brisket stuffed with vegetables, herbs, and sometimes rice, ham, eggs, or cheese; specialty of the Mediterranean.
Pied de cheval: “horse’s foot”; giant Atlantic coast oyster.
Pied de mouton: meaty cream-colored wild mushroom. Also, sheep’s foot.
Pieds et paquets: “feet and packages”; mutton tripe rolled and cooked with sheep’s feet, white wine, and tomatoes; specialty of Provence and the Mediterranean.
Pierre-Qui-Vire: “stone that moves”; a supple, tangy, flat disc of cow’s-milk cheese with a reddish rind, made by the Benedictine monks at the Abbaye de la Pierre-Qui Vire in Burgundy.
Pigeon (neau): pigeon or squab (young pigeon or squab).
Pignons: pine nuts, found in the cones of pine trees growing in Provence and along the southwestern Atlantic coast.
Pilau, pilaf: rice sautéed with onion and simmered in broth.
Pilchard: name for sardines on the Atlantic coast.
Piment: red pepper or pimento.
Piment (or poivre) de Jamaïque: allspice.
Piment d’Espelette: slender, mildly hot chile pepper from Espelette, a village in the Basque region.
Piment doux: sweet pepper.
Pimenté: hot, peppery, spicy.
Pimpernelle: salad burnet, a salad green with a somewhat bitter taste.
Pince: claw. Also, tongs used when eating snails or seafood.
Pineau des Charentes: sweet fortified wine from the Cognac region on the Atlantic coast, served as an aperitif.
Pintade(au): (young) guinea fowl.
Pipérade: a dish of pepper; onions, tomatoes, and often ham and scrambled eggs; specialty of the Basque region.
Piquant(e): sharp or spicy tasting.
Piqué: larded; studded.
Piquenchagne, picanchagne: a pear tart with walnut or brioche crust; specialty of the Bourbonnais, a province in Auvergne.
Pissaladière: a flat open-face tart like a pizza, garnished with onions, olives, and anchovies; specialty of Nice.
Pissenlit: dandelion green.
Pistache: pistachio nut.
Pistil de safran: thread of saffron.
Pistou: sauce of basil, garlic, and olive oil; specialty of Provence. Also a rich vegetable, bean, and pasta soup flavored with pistou sauce.
Pithiviers: a town in the Loire valley that gives its name to a classic large puff pastry found filled with almond cream. Also, lark pâté.
Plaice: a small, orange-spotted flounder or fluke, a flat ocean fish; also known as plie franch or carrelet. Found in the English Channel.
Plat cuisiné: dish containing ingredients that have cooked together, usually in a sauce.
Plat du jour: today’s special.
Plat principal: main dish.
Plate: flat-shelled oyster.
Plateau: platter.
Plateau de fruits de mer: seafood platter combining raw and cooked shell-fish; usually includes oysters, clams, mussels, langoustines, periwinkles, whelks, crabs, and tiny shrimp.
Plates côtes: part of beef ribs usually used in pot-au feu.
Pleurote: very soft-fleshed, feather-edged wild mushrooms; also now being cultivated commercially in several regions of France.
Plie: see Plaice.
Plombière: classic dessert of vanilla ice cream, candied fruit, kirsch, and apricot jam.
Pluche: small sprig of herbs or plants, generally used for garnish.
Poché: poached.
Pochouse: see Pauchouse.
Poêlé: pan-fried.
Pogne: brioche flavored with orange-flower water and filled with fruits; specialty of Romans-sur-Isère, in the Rhône-Alpes.
Point(e) (d’asperge): tip (of asparagus).
Point (à): ripe or ready to eat, the perfect moment for eating a cheese or fruit. Also, cooked medium rare.
Poire: pear.
Poire William’s: variety of pear; colorless fruit brandy, or eau-de-vie, often made from this variety of pear.
Poireau: leek.
Pois (chiche): pea (chickpea).
Poisson: fish.
d’eau douce: freshwater fish.
de lac: lake fish.
de mer: ocean fish.
de rivière: river fish.
de roche: rock fish.
fumé: smoked fish.
noble: refers to prized, thus expensive, variety of fish.
Poitrine: breast (of meat or poultry).
Poitrine demi-sel: unsmoked slab bacon.
Poitrine fumée: smoked slab bacon.
Poivrade: a peppery brown sauce made with wine, vinegar, and cooked vegetables and strained before serving.
Poivre: pepper.
d’ain: Provençal name for wild savory. Also, small goat cheese covered with sprigs of savory. Also known as pèbre d’ail and pèbre d’ase.
en grain: peppercorn.
frais de Madagascar: green peppercorn.
gris: black peppercorn.
moulu: ground pepper.
noir: black peppercorn.
rose: pink peppercorn.
vert: green peppercorn.
Poivron (doux): (sweet bell) pepper.
Pojarski: finely chopped meat or fish shaped like a cutlet and fried.
Polenta: cooked dish of cornmeal and water, usually with added butter and cheese; also, cornmeal.
Pommade (beurre en): usually refers to a thick, smooth paste; (creamed butter).
Pomme: apple.
Pommes de terre: potatoes.
à l’anglaise: boiled.
allumettes: “match-sticks”; fries cut into very thin julienne.
boulangère: potatoes cooked with the meat they accompany. Also, a gratin of sliced potatoes, baked with milk or stock and sometimes flavored with onions, bacon, and tomatoes.
darphin: grated potatoes shaped into a cake.
dauphine: mashed potatoes mixed with cboux pastry, shaped into small balls and fried.
dauphinoise: a gratin of sliced potatoes, baked with milk and/or cream, garlic, cheese, and eggs.
duchesse: mashed potatoes with butter, egg yolks, and nutmeg, used for garnish.
en robe des champs, en robe de chambre: potatoes boiled or baked in their skin; potatoes in their jackets.
frites: French fries.
gratinées: browned potatoes, often with cheese.
lyonnaise: potatoes sautéed with onions.
macaire: classic side dish of puréed potatoes shaped into small balls and fried or baked in a flat cake.
mousseline: potato purée enriched with butter, egg yolks, and whipped cream.
paillasson: fried pancake of grated potatoes.
pailles: potatoes cut into julienne strips, then fried.
Pont-Neuf: classic fries.
sarladaise: sliced potatoes cooked with goose fat and (optionally) truffles.
soufflées: small, thin slices of potatoes fried twice, causing them to inflate so they resemble little pillows.
sous la cèndre: baked under cinders in a fireplace.
vapeur: steamed or boiled potatoes.
Pommes en l’air: caramelized apple slices, usually served with boudin noir (blood sausage).
Pompe à l’huile, pompe de Noël: see Gibassier.
Pompe aux grattons: bread containing cracklings.
Pont l’Evêque: village in Normandy that gives its name to a very tender, fragrant square of cow’s milk cheese.
Porc (carré de): pork (loin).
Porc (côte de): pork (chop).
Porcelet: young suckling pig.
Porchetta: young pig stuffed with offal, herbs, and garlic, and toasted; seen in charcuteries in Nice.
Porto (au): (with) port.
Portugaise: elongated, crinkle-shell oyster.
Pot-au-feu: traditional dish of beef simmered with vegetables, often served in two or mote courses; today chefs often use it to mean fish poached in fish stock with vegetables.
Pot bouilli: another name for pot-au-feu.
Pot-de-crème: individual classic custard dessert, often chocolate.
Potage: soup.
Potée: traditional hearty meat soup, usually containing pork, cabbage, and potatoes.
Potimarron: see Citrouille.
Potiron: see Citrouille.
Potjevleisch: a mixed meat terrine, usually of veal, pork, and rabbit; specialty of the North.
Poularde: fatted hen.
Poule au pot: boiled stuffed chicken with vegetables; specialty of the city of Béarn in the southwest.
Poule d’Inde: turkey hen.
Poule faisane: female pheasant.
Poulet (rôti): chicken (roast).
Poulet basquaise: Basque-style chicken, with tomatoes and sweet peppers.
Poulet de Bresse: high-quality chicken raised on farms to exacting specifications, from the Rhône-Alpes.
Poulet de grain: corn-fed chicken.
Poulet fermier: free-range chicken.
Poulette: tiny chicken.s
Pouligny-Saint-Pierre: village in the Loire valley that gives its name to a goat’s-milk cheese shaped like a truncated pyramid with a mottled, grayish rind and a smooth-grained, ivory-white interior.
Poulpe: octopus.
Pounti: (also spelled pounty) a pork meat loaf that generally includes Swiss chard or spinach, eggs, milk, herbs, onions, and prunes; specialty of the Auvergne.
Pousse-en-claire: Oysters that have been aged and fattened in claire, or oyster beds, for four to eight months.
Pousse-pierre: edible seaweed; also called sea beans.
Poussin: baby chicken.
Poutargue, boutargue: salted, pressed, and flattened mullet roe, generally spread on toast as an appetizer; specialty of Provence and the Mediterranean.
Poutine: see Nonat.
Praire: small clam.
Pralin: ground caramelized almonds.
Praline: caramelized almonds.
Pré-salé (agneau de): delicately salted lamb raised on the salt marshes of Normandy and the Atlantic coast.
Presskoph: pork headcheese, often served with vinaigrette; specialty of Alsace.
Primeur(r): refers to early fresh fruits and vegetables, also to new wine.
Printanière: garnish of a variety of spring vegetables cut into dice or balls.
Prix fixe: fixed-price menu.
Prix net: service included.
Profiterole(s): classic chou pastry dessert, usually puffs of pastry filled with vanilla ice cream and topped with hot chocolate sauce.
Provençale: in the style of Provence; usually includes garlic, tomatoes, and/or olive oil.
Prune (d’ente): fresh plum; (variety of plum grown in the famed Agen region of the southwest).
Pruneau: prune.
Puits d’amour: “wells of love”; classic small pastry crowns filled with pastry cream.

Quasi (de veau): standing rump (of veal).
Quatre épices: spice blend of ground ginger, nutmeg, white pepper, and cloves.
Quatre-quarts: “four quarters”; pound cake made with equal weights of eggs, flour, butter, and sugar.
Quenelle: dumpling, usually of veal, fish, or poultry.
Quetsche: small purple Damson plum.
Queue (de boeuf): tail (of beef;oxtail).
Quiche lorraine: savory custard tart made with bacon, eggs, and cream.

Râble de lièvre (lapin): saddle of hare (rabbit).
Raclette: rustic dish, from Switzerland and the Savoie, of melted cheese served with boiled potatoes, tiny pickled cucumbers, and onions; also, the cheese used in the dish.
Radis: small red radish.
Radis noir: large black radish, often served with cream, as a salad.
Rafraîchi: cool, chilled, or fresh.
Ragoût: stew; usually of meat.
Raie (bouclée): skate or ray, found in the English Channel, Atlantic, and Mediterranean.
Raifort: horseradish.
Raisin: grape; raisin.
de Corinthe: currant.
de Smyrne: sultana.
sec: raisin.
Raïto: red wine sauce that generally includes onions, tomatoes, garlic, herbs, olives, and capers, usually served warm over grilled fish; specialty of Provence.
Ramequin: small individual casserole. Also, a small tart. Also, a small goat’s-milk cheese from the Bugey, an area in the northern Rhône valley.
Ramier: wood or wild pigeon.
Râpé: grated or shredded.
Rascasse: gurnard, or scorpion fish in the rockfish family; an essential ingredient of bouillabaisse, the fish stew of the Mediterranean.
Ratafia: liqueur made by infusing nut or fruit in brandy.
Ratatouille: a cooked dish of eggplant, zucchini, onions, tomatoes, peppers, garlic, and olive oil, served hot or cold; specialty of Provence.
Ratte: small, bite-size potatoes, often used for purées.
Ravigote: classic thick vinaigrette sauce with vinegar, white wine, shallots, and herbs. Also, cold mayonnaise with capers, onions, and herbs.
Raviole de Royans: tiny ravioli pasta filled with goat cheese, from the Rhône-Alpes.
Ravioli à la niçoise: square or round pasta filled with meat and/or swiss chard and baked with grated cheese.
Reblochon: smooth, supple, creamy cow’s-milk cheese from the Savoie in the Alps.
Réglisse: licorice.
Reine-Claude: greengage plum.
Reinette, reine de: fall and winter variety of apple, deep yellow with a red blush.
Religieuse, petite: “nun”; a small version of a classic pastry consisting of two choux puffs filled with chocolate, coffee, or vanilla pastry cream, placed one on top of another, and frosted with chocolate or coffee icing to resemble a nun in her habit.
Rémoulade (céleri): sauce of mayonnaise, capers, mustard, herbs, anchovies, and gherkins; (dish of shredded celery root with mayonnaise).
Repas: meal.
Rhuharbe: rhubarb.
Rhum: rum.
Rigotte: small cow’s-milk cheese from the Lyon region.
Rillettes (d’oie): minced spread of pork (goose); can also be made with duck, fish, or rabbit.
Rillons: usually pork belly, cut up and cooked until crisp, then drained of fat; also made of duck, goose, or rabbit.
Ris d’agneau (de veau): lamb (veal) sweetbreads.
Rissolé: browned by frying, usually potatoes.
Riz: rice.
à la impératrice: cold rice pudding with candied fruit.
complet: brown rice.
de Camargue: nutty, fragrant rice grown in the Camargue, the swampy area just south of Arles in Provence.
sauvage: wild rice.
Rizotto, risotto: creamy rice made by stirring rice constantly in stock as it cooks, then mixing in other ingredients such as cheese or mushrooms.
Robe des champs, robe de chambre (pommes en): potatoes boiled or baked in their skin; potatoes in their jackets.
Rocamadour: village in southwestern France which gives its name to a tiny disc of cheese, once made of pure goat’s or sheep’s milk, now generally either goat’s milk or a blend of goat’s and cow’s milk. Also called cabécou.
Rognonnade: veal loin with kidneys attached.
Rognons: kidneys.
Rollot: spicy cow’s-milk cheese with a washed ochre-colored rind, in small cylinder or heart shape; from the North.
Romanoff: fruit, often strawberries, macerated in liqueur and topped with whipped cream.
Romarin: rosemary.
Rondelle: round slice–of lemon, for example.
Roquefort: disc of blue veined cheese of raw sheep’s milk from southwestern France, aged in village of Roquefort-sur-Soulzon.
Roquette: rocket or arugula, a spicy salad green.
Rosé: rare; used for veal, duck, or liver. Also, rose-colored wine.
Rosette (de boeuf): large dried pork (beef) sausage, from area around Lyon.
Rôti: roast; meat roast.
Rouelle: slice of meat or vegetable cut at an angle.
Rouennaise (canard à la): in the style of Rouen; (classic dish of duck stuffed with its liver in a blood-thickened sauce).
Rouget barbet, rouget de roche: red mullet, a prized, expensive rock-fish, with sweet flesh and red skin; its flavorful liver is reserved for sauces.
Rouget grondin: red gurnard, a large, common rockfish, less prized than rouget barbet. A variety of galinette. An ingredient in bouillabaisse.
Rougette: a small red-leafed butterhead lettuce, specialty of Provence.
Rouille: mayonnaise of olive oil, garlic, chile peppers, bread, and fish broth; usually served with fish soups, such as bouillabaisse.
Roulade: meat or fish roll, or rolled-up vegetahle soufflé; larger than a paupiette, and often stuffed.
Roulé(e): rolled.
Roussette: dogfish, also called salmonette because of its pinkish skin, found on the Atlantic coast. Good when very fresh.
Roux: sauce base or thickening of flour and butter.
Rove: breed of goat; also small round of Provencal soft goat’s cheese, fragrant with wild herbs.
Royale, à la: “royal-style”; rich classic preparation, usually with truffles and a cream sauce.
Rumsteck: rump steak.
Russe, salade à la: cold mixed salad of peas and diced carrots and turnips in mayonnaise.

Sabayon, zabaglione: frothy sweet sauce of egg yolks, sugar, wine, and flavoring that is whipped while being cooked in a water bath.
Sabodet: strong, earthy pork sausage of pig’s head and skin, served hot; specialty of Lyon.
Safran: saffron.
Saignant(e): cooked rare, for meat, usually beef.
Saindoux: lard or pork fat.
Saint-Germain: with peas.
Saint-Hubert: poivrade sauce with chestnuts and bacon added.
Saint Jacques, coquille: sea scallop.
Saint-Marcellin: small flat disc of cow’s-milk cheese (once made of goat’s milk) made in dairies in the Isère, outside Lyon. The best is well aged and runny. Found in Paris, the Lyons area, and northern Provence.
Saint-Nectaire: village in the Auvergne that gives its name to a supple, thick disc of cow’s-milk cheese with a mottled gray rind.
Saint-Pierre: John Dory, a prized mild, flat, white ocean fish. Known as soleil and Jean Doré in the North, and poule de mer along the Atlantic coast.
Saint-Vincent: moist, buttery, thick cylinder of cow’s-milk cheese from Burgundy with a rust-colored rind; similar to Epoisses, but aged a bit longer, therefore stronger.
Sainte-Maure: village in the Loire valley that gives its name to a soft, elongated cylinder of goat’s-milk cheese with a distinctive straw in the middle and a mottled, natural blue rind.
Salade: salad; also, a head of lettuce.
Salade folle: mixed salad, usually including green beans and foie gras.
Salade lyonnaise: green salad with cubed bacon and soft-cooked eggs, often served with herring and anchovies, and/or sheep’s feet and chicken livers; specialty of Lyon; also called saladier lyonnais.
Salade niçoise: salad with many variations, but usually with tomatoes, green beans, anchovies, tuna, potatoes, black olives, capers, and artichokes.
Salade panachée: mixed salad.
Salade russe: mixed diced vegetables in mayonnaise.
Salade verte: green salad.
Saladier (lyonnais): see Salade lyonnaise.
Salé: salted.
Salers: Cantal-type cheese, made in rustic cheese-making houses only when the cows are in the Auvergne’s mountain pastures, from May to September.
Salicorne: edible seaweed, sea string bean; often pickled and served as a condiment.
Salmis: classic preparation of roasted game birds or poultry, with sauce made from the pressed carcass.
Salpicon: diced vegetables, meat, and/or fish in a sauce, used as a stuffing, garnish, or spread.
Salsifis: salsify, oyster plant.
Sandre: pickerel, perch-like river fish, found in the Saône and Rhine.
Sang: blood.
Sanglier: wild boar.
Sangue: Corsican black pudding usually with grapes or herbs.
Sanguine: “blood” orange, so named for its red juice.
Sansonnet: Starling or thrush.
Sar, sargue: blacktail, a tiny flat fish of the sea bream family best grilled or baked.
Sarcelle: teal, a species of wild duck.
Sardine: small sardine. Large sardines are called pilchards. Found year-round in the Mediterranean, from May to October in the Atlantic.
Sarladaise: as prepared in Sarlat in the Dordogne; with truffles.
Sarrasin: buckwheat.
Sarriette: summer savory. See poivre d’ain.
Saucisse: small fresh sausage.
Saucisse chaude: warm sausage.
Saucisse de Francfort: hot dog.
Saucisse de Strasbourg: redskinned hot dog.
Saucisse de Toulouse: mild country-style pork sausage.
Saucisson: most often, a large air-dried sausage, such as salami, eaten sliced as a cold cut; when fresh, usually called saucisson chaud, or hot sausage.
Saucisson à l’ail: garlic sausage, usually to be cooked and served warm.
Saucisson d’Arles: dried salami-style sausage that blends pork, beef and gentle seasoning; a specialty of Arles, in Provence.
Saucisson de campagne: any country-style sausage.
Saucisson de Lyon: air-dried pork sausage, flavored with garlic and pepper and studded with chunks of pork fat.
Saucisson de Morteau: see Jésus de Morteau.
Saucisson en croûte: sausage cooked in a pastry crust.
Saucisson sec: any dried sausage, or salami.
Sauge: sage.
Saumon (sauvage): salmon (“wild,” to differentiate from commercially raised salmon).
Saumon d’Ecosse: Scottish salmon.
Saumon de fontaine: small, commercially raised salmon.
Saumon fumé: smoked salmon.
Saumon norvégien: Norwegian salmon.
Saumonette: see Roussette.
Saupiquet: classic aromatic wine sauce thickened with bread.
Sauté: browned in fat.
Sauvage: wild.
Savarin: yeast-leavened cake shaped like a ring, soaked in sweet syrup.
Savoie (biscuit de): sponge cake.
Savoyarde: in the style of Savoy, usually flavored with Gruyère cheese.
Scarole: escarole.
Schieffele, schieffala, schifela: smoked pork shoulder, served hot and garnished with pickled turnips or a potato and onion salad.
Sec (sèche): dry or dried.
Seiche: cuttlefish. Seigle (pain de): rye (bread).
Sel gris: salt, unbleached sea salt.
Sel marin: sea salt.
Sel (gros): coarse salt.
Selle: saddle (of meat).
Selles-sur-Cher: village in the Loire valley identified with a small, flat, truncated cylinder of goat’s-milk cheese with a mottled blueish-gray rind (sometimes patted with powdered charcoal) and a pure-white interior.
Selon grosseur (S.G.): according to size, usually said of lobster or other seafood.
Selon le marché: according to what is in season or available.
Selon poid (S.P.): according to weight, usually said of seafood. Semolina or crushed wheat. Also used in France as a savory garnish, particularly in North African dishes such as couscous.
Serpolet: wild thyme.
Service: meal, mealtime, the serving of the meal. A restaurant has two services if it serves lunch and dinner; a dish en deux services, like canard pressé. is served in two courses.
Service (non) compris: service charge (not) included in the listed menu prices (but invariably included on the bill).
Service en sus: service charge to be made in addition to menu prices. Same as service non compris.
Simple: simple, plain, unmixed. Also, a single scoop of ice cream.
Smitane: sauce of cream, onions, white wine, and lemon juice.
Socca: a very thin, round crêpe made with chickpea flour, sold on the streets of Nice and eaten as a snack.
Soissons: dried or fresh white beans, from the area around Soissons, northeast of Paris.
Soja (pousse de): soy bean (soy bean sprout).
Soja, sauce de: soy sauce.
Solette: small sole.
Sommelier: wine waiter.
Sorbet: sherbet.
Soubise: onion sauce.
Soufflé: light, mixture of puréed ingredients, egg yolks, and whipped egg whites, which puffs up when baked; sweet or savory, hot or cold.
Soumaintrain: a spicy, supple flat disc of cow’s-milk cheese with a red-brown rind; from Burgundy.
Soupir de nonne: “nun’s sighs”; fried choux pastry dusted with confectioners’ sugar. Created by a nun in an Alsatian abbey. Also called pet de nonne.
Souris: “mouse”; muscle that holds the leg of lamb to the bone; lamb shanks.
Spätzel, spaetzle, spetzli: noodle-like Alsatian egg and flour dumpling, served poached or fried.
Spoom: wine or fruit juice mixed with egg whites, whipped, and frozen to create a frothy iced dessert.
Steak-frites: classic French dish of grilled steak served with French-fried potatoes.
Stockfish, stocaficada, estoficada, estoficado, morue plate: flattened, dried cod found in southern France. Also, a purée-like blend of dried codfish, olive oil, tomatoes, sweet peppers, black olives, potatoes, garlic, onions, and herbs; specialty of Nice. Sometimes served with pistou.
Strasbourgeoise, à la: ingredients typical of Strasbourg including sauerkraut, foie gras, and salt pork.
Succès à la praline: cake made with praline meringue layers, frosted with meringue and butter cream.
Sucre: sugar.
Supion, supioun, suppion: cuttlefish.
Suprême: a veal- or chicken-based white sauce thickened with flour and cream. Also, a boneless breast of poultry or a filet of fish.

Table d’hôte: open table or board. Often found in the countryside, these are private homes that serve fixed meals and often have one or two guest rooms as well.
Tablette (de chocolat): bar (of chocolate).
Tablier de sapeur: “fireman’s apron”; tripe that is marinated, breaded, and grilled; specialty of Lyon.
Tacaud: pour or whiting-pour, a small, inexpensive fish found in the Atlantic and Mediterranean, usually fried.
Tagine: spicy North African stew of veal, lamb, chicken, or pigeon, and vegetables.
Talmouse: savory pastry triangle of cheese-flavored choux dough baked in puff pastry.
Tamié: Flat disc of cheese, made of cow’s milk at the Trappist monastery in the Savoie village of Tamié. Similar to Reblochon.
Tanche: tench, a river fish with a mild, delicate flavor; often an ingredient in matelote and pauchouse, freshwater fish stews.
Tapenade: a blend of black olives, anchovies, capers, olive oil, and lemon juice, sometimes with rum or canned tuna added; specialty of Provence.
Tarama: carp roe, often made into a spread of the same name.
Tarbas: variety of large white bean, usually dried.
Tartare (de poisson): traditionally chopped raw beef, seasoned and garnished with raw egg, capers, chopped onion, and parsley; (today, a popular highly seasoned raw fish dish).
Tarte: tart; open-face pie or flan, usually sweet.
Tarte encalat: name for cheesecake in the Auvergne.
Tarte flambée: thin-crusted savory tart, much like a rectangular pizza, covered with cream, onions, and bacon; specialty of Alsace; also called Flamekueche.
Tarte Tatin: caramelized upside-down apple pie, made famous by the Tatin sisters in their hotel in Lamotte-Beuvron, in the Sologne; a popular dessert, seen on menus all over France.
Tartine: open-face sandwich; buttered bread.
Tasse: cup; a coffee or tea cup.
Telline: a tiny violet-streaked clam, the size of a fingernail, seen in Provence and the Camargue; generally seared with a bit of oil in a hot pan to open the shells and seasoned with parsley and garlic.
Tendre: tender.
Tendron: cartilaginous meat cut from beef or veal ribs.
Teurgoule: a sweet rice pudding with cinnamon; specialty of Normandy.
Terrine: earthenware container used for cooking meat, game, fish, or vegetable mixtures; also the pâté cooked and served in such a container. It differs from a pâté proper in that the terrine is actually sliced out of the container, while a pâté has been removed from its mold.
Tête de veau (porc): head of veal (pork), usually used in headcheese.
Tétragone: spinach-like green, found in Provence.
Thé: tea.
Thermidor (homard): classic lobster dish; lobster split lengthwise, grilled, and served in the shell with a cream sauce.
Thon (blanc) (germon): tuna (white albacore).
Thon rouge: bluefin tuna.
Thym: thyme.
Tian: an earthenware gratin dish; also vegetable gratins baked in such a dish; from Provence.
Tiède: lukewarm.
Tilleul: linden tree; linden-blossom herb tea.
Timbale: small round mold with straight or sloping slides; also, a mixture prepared in such a mold.
Tomates à la provençale: baked tomato halves sprinkled with garlic, parsley, and bread crumbs.
Tomme: generic name for cheese, usually refers to a variety of cheeses in the Savoie; also, the fresh cheese used to make Cantal in the Auvergne.
Tomme arlésienne: rectangular cheese made with a blend of goat’s and cow’s milk and sprinkled with summer savory; also called tomme de Camargue; a specialty of the Languedoc and Arles, in Provence.
Tomme fraiche: pressed cake of fresh milk curds, used in the regional dishes of the Auvergne.
Topinambour: Jerusalem artichoke.
Torréfiée: roasted, as in coffee beans and chocolate.
Toro (taureau): bull; meat found in butcher shops in the Languedoc and Pays Basque, and sometimes on restaurant menus.
Torteau au fromage: goat cheese cheesecake from the Poitou-Charentes along the Atlantic coast; a blackened, spherical loaf found at cheese shops throughout France; once a homemade delicacy, today prepared industrially.
Tortue: turtle.
Toucy: village in Burgundy that gives its name to a local fresh goat cheese.
Tourain, tourin, tourrin: generally a peasant soup of garlic, onions (and sometimes tomatoes), and broth or water, thickened with egg yolks and seasoned with vinegar; specialty of the southwest.
Tournedos: center portion of beef filet, usually grilled or sautéed.
Tournedos Rossini: sautéed tournedos garnished with foie gras and truffles.
Touron: marzipan loaf, or a cake of almond paste, often layered and flavored with nuts or candied fruits and sold by the slice; specialty of the Basque region.
Tourte (aux blettes): pie (common Niçoise dessert pie filled with Swiss chard, eggs, cheese, raisins, and pine nuts). Also, name for giant rounds of country bread found in the Auvergne and the southwest.
Tourteau: large crab.
Tourtière: shallow three-legged cooking vessel, set over hot coals for baking. Also, southwestern pastry dish filled with apples and/or prunes and sprinkled with Armagnac.
Train de côtes: rib of beef.
Traiteur: caterer; delicatessen.
Tranche: slice.
Trappiste: name given to the mild, lactic cow’s-milk cheese made in a Trappist monastery in Echourgnac, in the southwest.
Travers de porc: spareribs.
Trévise: radicchio, a bitter red salad green of the chicory family.
Tripes à la mode de Caen: beef tripe, carrots, onions, leeks, and spices, cooked in water, cider, and Calvados (apple brandy); specialty of Normandy.
Triple crème: legal name for cheese containing more than 75 percent butterfat, such as Brillat-Savarin.
Tripoux: mutton tripe.
Tripoxa: Basque name for sheep’s or calf’s blood sausage served with spicy red Espelette peppers.
Trompettes de la mort: dark brown wild mushroom, also known as “horn of plenty.”
Tronçon: cut of meat or fish resulting in a piece that is longer than it is wide; generally refers to slices from the largest part of a fish.
Trouchia: flat omelet filled with spinach or Swiss chard; specialty of Provence.
Truffade: a large layered and fried potato pancake made with bacon and fresh Cantal cheese; specialty of the Auvergne.
Truffe (truffé): truffle (with truffles).
Truffes sous la cendre: truffles wrapped in pastry or foil, gently warmed as they are buried in ashes.
Truite (au bleu): trout (a preferred method of cooking trout, not live, as often assumed, but rather in a “live condition.” The trout is gutted just moments prior to cooking, but neither washed nor scaled. It is then plunged into a hot mixture of vinegar and water, and the slimy lubricant that protects the skin of the fish appears to turn the trout a bluish color. The fish is then removed to a broth to finish its cooking.)
de lac: lake trout.
de mer: sea trout or brown trout.
de rivière: river trout.
saumoneé: salmon trout.
Ttoro: fish soup from the Basque region. Historically, the liquid that remained after poaching cod was seasoned with herbs and used to cook vegetables and potatoes. Today, a more elaborate version includes the addition of lotte, mullet, mussels, conger eel, langoustines, and wine.
Tuile: literally, “curved roofing tile”; delicate almond-flavored cookie.
Tulipe: tulip-shaped cookie for serving ice cream or sorbet.
Turban: usually a mixture or combination of ingredients cooked in a ring mold.
Turbot(in): turbot (small turbot), Prized flatfish found in the Atlantic and Mediterranean.
Vache: cow.
Vacherin: dessert of baked meringue, with ice cream and whipped cream. Also a strong, supple winter cheese encircled by a band of spruce, from the Jura.
Vallée d’Auge: area of Normandy. Also, garnish of cooked apples and cream or Calvados and cream.
Vanille: vanilla.
Vapeur, à la: steamed.
Varech: seaweed.
Veau: veal.
Velouté: classic sauce based on veal, chicken, or fish stock, thickened with a roux of butter and flour; also, variously seasoned classic soups thickened with cream and egg yolks.
Ventre: belly or stomach.
Ventrèche: pork belly.
Verdure (en): garnish of green vegetables. Verdurette: herb vinaigrette.
Vernis: large fleshy clam with small red tongue and shiny varnish-like shell.
Verjus: the juice of unripe grapes, used to make a condiments used much like vinegar in sauces.
Véronique, à la: garnish of peeled white grapes. Vert-pré: a watercress garnish, sometimes including potatoes.
Verveine: lemon verbena, herb tea.
Vessie, en: cooked in a pig’s bladder (usually chicken).
Viande: meat.
Vichy: with glazed carrots. Also, a brand of mineral water.
Vichyssoise: cold, creamy leek and potato soup.
Viennoise: coated in egg, breaded, and fried.
Vierge (sauce): “virgin”; term for the best quality olive oil, from the first pressing of the olives; (sauce of olive oil, lemon juice, garlic, tomatoes, and fresh herbs.)
Vieux (vielle): old.
Vieux Lille: thick, square cheese named for the old part of the north’s largest city, made in the same way as Maroilles, with cow’s milk, only salted more, then aged six months until stinking ripe. Also called vieux puant, or “old stinker.”
Vin jaune: an amber yellow wine made in the Jura with late harvested grapes. Stored in oak casks, it can last up to a century.
Vinaigre (vieux): vinegar (aged).
Vinaigre de xérès: sherry vinegar.
Vinaigrette: oil and vinegar dressing.
Viognier: increasingly popular white grape of the Rhône, used for the famed Condrieu .
Violet or figue de mer: unusual iodine-strong, soft-shelled edible sea creature, with a yellowish interior. A delicacy along the Mediterranean, particularly in Marseille.
Violet de Provence: braid of plump garlic, a specialty of Provence and the Côte-d’Azur.
Violette: violet; its crystallized petals are a specialty of Toulouse.
Viroflay: classic garnish of spinach for poached or soft-cooked eggs.
Vive or vipère de mer: weever; a small firm-fleshed ocean fish used in soups, such as bouillabaisse, or grilled. The venomous spine is removed before cooking.
Vol-au-vent: puff pastry shell.
Volonté (à): at the customer’s discretion.
Vonnaissienne, à la: in the style of Vonnas, a village in the Rhône-Alpes. Also, crêpes made with potatoes.

Waterzooi: Flemish chicken stew cooked with aromatic herbs and vegetables in a sauce of cream and chicken broth.

Xérès (vinaigre de): sherry (vinegar).
Yaourt: yogurt.
Za’tar: Middle Eastern seasoning mix of ground sesame seeds, sumac berrries, thyme and salt.
Zeste: zest, or citrus peel with white pith removed.
Zewelmai, zewelwai: Alsatian onion tart.
Zingara, à la: gypsy style; with tomato sauce. Also classically, a garnish of ham, tongue, mushrooms, and truffles.

SUNIL KUMAR

SIHM ROHTAK

2007-08

 

CHAPTER 31: GARNISHES AND THEIR HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE

 

 

1. AFRICAINE

In the African style, as practiced by   French chefs. dishes

that bear this title must convey the style of foods consumed

in the vast continent of North, West, Central and East

Africa, and the Union of South Africa. It was however

indiscriminately applied by the French chefs to dishes during

the reign of Napoleon III when Meyerbeer’s opera L’Africaine

enjoyed great popularity .The principal ingredients used as

garnish, giving dishes the right to bear this title are:-

chicken, mushroom, tomatoes, eggplant,

Curried and spiced foods; dishes garnished with savoury rice

or flavoured with garlic or pimento and groundnuts. Coconut

and pistachio nuts find their way in the sweet course.

1. AILERONS

Wing tips of chicken. Foods garnished with small wings   of

poultry or fins of fish of certain types of fish.

Eg .Consommé ‘Ailerons’

Chicken consommé garnished with stuffed chicken wings and

cooked rice.

1. AIOLI

A Provencal olive oil cum garlic sauce. In Provençe the

Aioli is the name of the dish itself whether it be fish,

Vegetables or snails when served with this cold sauce.

Sauce: Garlic flavoured mayonnaise sauce with hard boiled

eggs added   sprinkled with cayenne.

1. ALASKA

Formerly called Russian America, it is a territory of the United

States of America.

i) Sole Alaska – poached whole sole in white wine, half

coated with a pink shrimp sauce and the other half with

white wine sauce (made with fish liquor) garnished with poached

oysters and noisette potatoes.

ii) Baked Alaska is Americas favourite dessert .It is frozen

vanilla ice cream placed on a sponge cake base covered

quickly with Meringue and baked in a hot oven to brown the

meringue immediately

iii) Cantaloupe Alaska –cut cantaloupes into 2, fill with

ice cream, topped with meringue and browned.

1. ALEXANDRA

Was the consort (the queen) of Edward VII, a king of Great

Britain and Ireland in whose honour many dishes were named.

Indicates inclusion of asparagus tips.

i) Consommé Alexandra.  Chicken consommé thickened with

tapioca, garnished with shredded chicken, lettuce and

asparagus tips.

ii) Chicken Sauté Alexandra: – Cook the

chicken breasts in butter, mask with thin soubise sauce

reduced with cream, and garnish with asparagus tips.

1. ALLEMANDE

In the German style, dishes garnished with sauerkraut or

pickled pork or smoked sausages.

i) Consommé: Allemande: Beef Consommé flavored with juniper berries   thickened with tapioca flour garnished with julienne of

red cabbage and slices of smoked sausages.

ii) Salad: Allemande: slices of apple, new potatoes, beetroot, mixed with smoked herrings fillets and gherkins sprinkled with chopped parsley and vinaigrette dressing.

1. AMBASSADRICE

Literally means the wife of the Ambassador.

i) Sole: Crayfish encased in rolled fillets of sole,

poached and served with sauce Normande.

ii) Pudding: a rich custard flavored with kirsch with a layer of strawberries,

served with strained strawberry jam  flavored with kirsch.

1. AMERICAINE

In the American style as practiced by the French chefs.

A garnish for fish :slices of lobster tail and truffles.

Sauce: Tomato sauce enriched with cream, blended with pounded

Coral butter and tail meat. Reduce with rich fish stock.

Bombe: Ice cream bombe mould, lined with strawberry ice cream

flavored with grenadine, alternated with pistachio ice cream

Salad: Sliced potatoes, tomatoes, celery, rings of onions and

sliced hard boiled eggs with a French dressing.

1. ANDALOUSE

In the Andalusian style.  A Spanish province.

Chicken Consommé: garnished with diced tomatoes, cucumber and cooked vermicelli.

A cold sauce: Mayonnaise + tomato puree mixed

with brunoise of capsicum.

1.  ANGLAISE

In the English style as prepared by the French chefs. It indicates a “plainly/simply prepared” dish.

Garniture for Chicken: mixed vegetable (carrots, french beans, turnips,

potatoes, cauliflower) cooked in salted water

Côtelette de veau:  Grilled breaded cutlets garnished with

par boiled potatoes fried in butter.

1.  ANNA

The first name of Anna Amelia, Duchess of Saxony, born 24^th

October 1739, chiefly applied to a certain manner of cooking

potatoes invented by Chef  Dugleré who was Chef at Café D’

anglaise in Paris, in pre – war days.

Potatoes: peeled, sliced thinly, arranged in a shallow mould

With melted butter and seasoning. Baked in the oven to golden yellow color.

1.  ARGENTUIL

Name of a district in France, famous for its asparagus.

Potage: Asparagus soup thickened with rice and garnished with

asparagus points.

Chicken: large flat fillet, poached and coated with supreme

sauce to which asparagus puree has been added .

1.  AU BLEU

Meats/Fish cooked fresh and simply,

Truite au bleu: Trout brought to the kitchen alive and stunned and gutted just before cooking in water and white wine.  Flavored with herbs and vinegar served with parsley potatoes, hollandaise sauce or melted butter.

1. AURORE

Dawn – Break of day. The Roman Goddess of Dawn – Aurore.

Consommé of veal stock with tomato puree added, garnished

with diced chicken.

Sauce: Bechamel sauce flavored with tarragon and lightly

colored with tomato puree or lobster butter in case of fish.

Oeufs: Julienne of hard boiled eggs in allemande sauce with grated

Cheese and browned under the salamander

Fruits: Cold dessert, made from fruits in season on strawberry

ice cream with a Zabaione (sabayon) sauce flavored with Curacco.

1.  BABA

Turkish for father.  It is generally acknowledged that the

invention of the cake Baba au rhum belongs to the King

Stanislaus of Russia.  The king used to read the tales of a

100 nights and has named this after his favourite hero – Alibaba.

Baba au Rhum: A light yeast dough   batter, sweetened and

enriched with butter and eggs. While still hot, it is dipped in

hot sugar syrup, strongly flavoured with rum, whipped cream

is piped on top of the cake.

Baba au kirsch as above using kirsch instead of rum.

1.  BATAILLE

Brittle, fight, battle array or Batailey – a chateau of the

Bordeaux region

Potatoes: cut in ½” square and deep fried in fat.

1.  BATTENBURG

The name of a family of German counts which died out about 1314.

The title was revived in 1851.

Batterburg cake: A lattice pattern of pink, yellow and chocolate

Genoise cake encased in rich almond paste.

1.  BAVOROISE

A Bavarian cream, Bavarian style.

Example of Bavarian creams: Flavoured custard using double the volume of ceam (in relation to milk)

Sauce: Rich hollandaise sauce flavored with cray fish puree and paprika.

1.  BAYONNAISE

The city in Spain was famous for its ham and pork and products.

It is said mayonnaise was first spelled bayonnaise, and Spain claims

mayonnaise as one of her culinary creations.

Canapé: a circle of rye toast heaped with minced ham.

Poulet sauté: young chicken fried with chopped ham,

stewed in brown sauce and served with boiled rice.

1.  BEARNAISE

From the province of Bearn in the French Pyrenees.

Sauce: Bearnaise is named by the chef of Henry IV

at St. Germain who first introduced this sauce .Yolks of eggs

warmed in double boiler, with chopped shallots and herbs, with butter

added piece by piece until the sauce is as thick as mayonnaise,

lemon juice and cayenne pepper added.

Chauteaubriand: Double fillet of beef, brushed with olive oil,

broiled, garnished, with watercress and served with sauce bearnaise.

1.  BECHAMEL

Marquis de Bechamel, a courtier in the service of the king

Louis XIV said to have invented Bechamel sauce.

Lobster: diced and mixed with béchamel returned to shell and baked.

Sauce: Rich creamy white sauce made of flour and butter roux and milk, seasoned with salt, pepper, mace and bay leaf.

Artichokes: boiled artichokes served with béchamel sauce.

1.   BELLE HELENE

Presumably named for the opera, ‘Belle Helene’ by Offenbach

and produced 1864.

Tournedos de boeuf: small fillets of, grilled and garnished with

straw potatoes, watercress and artichoke bottoms filled with

sauce bearnaise

Desserts: fresh fruits like pears, peaches stewed in vanilla

flavored sugar syrup. When cold placed on ice cream and

covered with rich glossy chocolate sauce garnished with

whipped cream and nuts.

1.   BEL PAESE

A rich creamy cheese of Italian origin having a mild flavor,

weighing 2-3lbs each.

1.   BERCY

It is a suburb and market of Paris

Potage: Puree of spring turnips thickened with cream and egg yolk.

Sauce: Thin, meat glaze with chopped shallots reduced in white wine and enriched with fresh butter, lemon juice and chopped parsley

Sole: Rolled fillets of fish, cooked under cover in butter with chopped shallots, mushroom liquor, white wine and chopped parsley masked with bercy sauce.

1.   BIGARDE

A bitter Seville orange from Spain.

Canard sauvage: wild duck served with orange salad and sauce bigarde.

Sauce: Gravy from duck, reduced with fine shreds of orange and flavoured with orange juice and little red currant jelly.

1.   BOLOGNAISE

In the style of Bologna, a city in Italy famous for its

Bolognaise sausages.

Spaghetti: cooked in salted water, strained combined with

diced/minced beef tossed in butter with minced onions

moistened with veal stock, flavored with garlic and tomato.

1.  BONNE FEMME

(Good Woman) – Housewife style.

Potage; Thick white bean and chicken soup with julienne of

vegetables (leeks, sorrel, carrots and turnips)

Sauce: creamy white sauce made with finely chopped mushrooms

and shallots, blended with butter, seasoned and thickened with

cream and egg yolk and flavored with white wine.

Sole: Poached fillets of sole, cooked with chopped shallots,

mushroom, parsley, fish stock and white wine. Masked with fish veloute and browned.

Poulet sauté: young chicken sautéed with rich gravy reduced with

white wine, garnished with diced bacon and button onions.

1.   BORDELAISE  (a  la)

In the style of the city of Bordeaux.

Sauce: Rich brown sauce, reduced with red wine and chopped

shallots, tarragon, and parsley.

1.   BOUDIN NOIR

Traditional grilled, blood sausage for the festivities

on Christmas Eve in Germany (Alsace).

1.   BOUILLI  A  BAISSE

A Provencal word indicates to boil and then stop.

Bouillabaise – A Mediterranean fish stew of several kinds of

fish cut in to small pieces and tossed in oil with chopped herbs

and onions moistened with white wine seasoned with saffron,

tomatoes and garlic,garnished with chopped parsley. Very

popular with fishermen on the water front in Marseillaise  who

prepare this for a late breakfast with the leftovers of morning sale

1.   BOUILLON  (Stock)

Broth, principally of beef

1.   BOUQUETIERE   (A    LA)

In the manner of flower girls, usually a garnish consisting

Of small fine vegetables dressed in small heaps around the meat

1.   BOURBON

Name of a family of French Rulers.

Consomme: Chicken consommé thickened with tapioca garnished

with truffles cut into fancy shapes (hearts, diamonds, crescent etc)

and finely chopped chervil.

1.   BOURGUIGNONNE

Burgundy style: As a rule dishes in the preparation of which

burgundy wine is added

Sauce Espagnole: Sauce flavored with finely minced shallots,

Thyme, parsley, tarragon and mace. Burgundy wine is usually

added.

Garniture for joint (roasts) – Button mushrooms and onions

tossed in butter with small dices of lean bacon and burgundy wine.

1.   BRESSANE

Style of Bresse the French Provencal District famous for its fattened chicken. Poulardes des Bresse.

Crème: cream of pumpkin soup, garnished with mezzanelli

(italian pasta) and enriched with cream.

1.   BRILLAT- SAVARIN

Noted French gastronome and author of French works, chiefly

famous for his book “La Physiologie du Gout” (the physiology

of taste).  The well known light, spongy yeast cake made in

ring form is named after him.

1.    BRUNOISE

Brunoy a district in France celebrated for its spring vegetables finely

Diced cooked root vegetables for a consommé garnish.

Consommé: a rich beef consommé garnished with small diced carrots, Leeks, onion, turnip and celery, all browned in a little butter cooked in consommé.

1.   CARDINAL

The highest dignitary in the Roman Catholic Church, after the pope.

As a cardinal wears a distinctive scarlet dress and a scarlet cap, the kitchen term stands for any dish of that color .Usually  lobster coral plays an important part in fish dishes.

Consommé: Chicken consommé   flavored   with tomato puree garnished with finely cut julienne of vegetable strips of truffles and lobster dumplings.

Lobster: Cubed lobster mixture mixed with Sauce Americaine and filled in lobster shells, sprinkled with cheese and breadcrumbs and browned in the oven.

Sauce: rich, white fish sauce blended with pounded lobster coral to give it a correct colour, flavored with essence of anchovies and with tarragon.

Garniture for fish: diced lobster, truffle, shrimps or prawn and cardinal sauce.

Dessert: Strawberries, peaches or pears poached in syrup and dressed on strawberry or raspberry ice cream with raspberry or strawberry sauce and sprinkled with sliced roasted almonds and little pistachio nuts.

1.   CAREME

Antoine Careme (1784-1833) Chef to King George IV and later the Austrian emperor Francis II and the Russian Czar, Alexander I and author of many culinary works. Many dishes are named after this most famous chef.

1.   CARMEN

a) Carmen Sylva was the nom de plume of Elizabeth, Queen of      Romania, born 29th December 1843.

b) Star role in the opera of the same name by Bizet which was first produced in Paris at the Opera Comedie on 3^rd March 1875

Consommé– clear beef consommé well colored with tomato puree garnished with star shapes of pimento, boiled rice and chervil.

1.   CHARLOTTE

Charlotte mould (tall, straight sided mould) lined with over lapping   wafer biscuits

and filled with strawberry or raspberry cream, mixed with a little gelatin and cream.

1.   CELESTINE

The Celestines were recognized as a branch of the Benedictines. Celestine being a monk so named after Pope Celesten. Several dishes bear this name and are of an exquisite character.  St.  Celestine is commemorated on 6^th April each year.

Consommé .Clear broth garnished with shredded pancakes and chopped herbs.

1.   CHANTILLY

City and district of France, famous for its rich cream and fine green peas.

Sauce: (a) Hot, rich béchamel sauce blended with lightly whipped cream.

(b)Cold mayonnaise sauce blend with whipped cream flavored with lemon juice.

1.   CHARCUTIERE

In the manner of Pork butcher’s style.

Sauce: Demi glaze mixed with chopped shallots, julienne of gherkins reduced with white wine, lemon juice, sugar and with parsley and mustard to finish.

1.   CHARTREUSE

The convent, known as La Grande Chartreuse near Grenoble, France, former seat of the Carthusian monks. These monks who were strict vegetarians invented a vegetable composition (liqueur) usually made and cooked in moulds in a very elaborate way. When the monks were driven from France, they settled in Spain. From then, all manner of dishes were given this title including Chartreuse of meat, game, and poultry. Strictly speaking all  dishes bearing the name  Chartreuse should have a  vegetable liqueur   It is a  sweet liqueur made in Voirens in France,  until the  monks were turned out  and now made in Spain .The secret of the  recipe is closely guarded .

Colours: Yellow and Green.

1.   CHASSEUR

A Chaser, a hunter, hunter’s style from the famous chasseurs of Light Infantry or cavalry regiments who hunted for their food in the forest or on mountain heights.

Consommé: a rich clear game soup garnished with game quenelles made from as many varieties of game as possible.

Sauce: Minced shallots and mushrooms sautéed and reduced with white wine and demi glaze, chopped parsley.

Poulet sauté : chicken sauté and finished in a casserole  in the oven with tomatoes, brown chicken sauce, sliced mushrooms, chopped shallots and sprinkled with chopped  parsley.

1.   CHATEAU

Castle, feudal fortress, stronghold; also wine growing establishments with vineyards.

Chateau potatoes are quartered potatoes with all sharp corners rounded off and cooked for a few minutes in butter in a sauce pan and then roasted in an oven used extensively to garnish roast meats.

1.   CHATEAUBRIAND

Vicomte Francois Auguste Chateaubriand was born at St. Malo on 14.9.1763 died 4thjuly 1848. French author and a great gourmet. The favorite dish of a double fillet steak or the head of the tenderloin, is named after him. Chef Montmireil (chef to Vicomte de Chateaubriand) formed a pocket in a thick tenderloin steak to stuff it with chopped shallots and bone marrow. English cooks would sandwich their rump steaks with sliced shallots .The double fillet of beef is now served in so many different ways. The original Chateubriand as invented by Chef  Montmireil   was slit and  filled with chopped shallots  tossed in a pan  with bone marrow  to which  was added meat glaze  chopped chives,  seasoned with cayenne and salt.

Sauce: Rich brown sauce made with well reduced stock to half glaze enriched with butter and flavored with lemon juice, red currant jelly, cayenne pepper and chopped parsley.

1.   CHAUD –FROID

It is considered that the prototype of  chaud-froid was  first introduced by  the Marquis de Chaufroix, who called for the cold bird to be brought back to the table  in its congealed sauce and approved of it in that state.

Sauce (white): This is a masking sauce made with well reduced veloute blended with sufficient dissolved gelatin or aspic to set the sauce when cold.

Sauce (brown) well reduced brown meat or game sauce treated as above .Also available in red (tomato), green (spinach).

1.    CHIFFONADE

Chiffon means rag .Literally vegetables in rags –long shreds of vegetables.

Leafy vegetables such as cress, lettuce and spinach

Consommé-clarified soup, garnished with finely shredded lettuce leaves spring onion heads and other such vegetables, seasoned with mint leaves and tarragon.

1.   CLAREMONT

Consommé –clear beef consommé garnished with fried onion rings and custard royale.

1.   COCK-A-LEEKIE

Large quantities of  this famous Scottish soup  were consumed at the  Burns centenary festival at the  Crystal Palace, Sydenham in 1859. It is hard to trace the origin of this soup .Some say it originated from the days of cock fighting, the  defeated cock being thrown in the pot,with leeks to give added flavor .This soup was then handed around with parts of   the bird,  to the  spectators. .Another version is that  in olden times when  the cock had passed its youth,  the last purpose it served  was the   feast of  “ The Cock A  Leekie”.  However it was and  still is a grand dish .This soup is also claimed to be from  Wales whose emblem is the leek.

1.   COLBERT

Two famous dishes Sole a la Colbert and Consommé a la Colbert are in constant demand .The sole is named after Charles Colbert De Croissy, famous French diplomat while the delicious soup is named after Jean Baptiste Colbert, a statesman of France in the reign of Louis XIV. The consommé is distinguished  by being garnished with poached eggs  while  the sole is noted for its  stuffing  of Maitre d’ hotel  butter being placed inside  before being sent  to the table.

Colbert butter: Maitre d’hotel butter mixed with a little meat glaze and chopped tarragon/parsley.

Colbert sauce: Rich thin brown sauce and finely chopped herbs and lemon juice.

Consommé: Clear beef soup garnished with lightly poached egg.

Sole: Whole sole carefully opened along centre and backbone removed .Egg washed, crumbed and fried, stuff space with Colbert butter.

1.   CHORON

Alexander Etienne Choron, born at Caen, France on 21^st October 1771, died in Paris 29th June 1834.

A French composer whose name is often confused with Chorin or Chiron.

Sauce Choron: Bearnaise sauce blended with a good concentrate of tomato puree.

1.    CONDE

1)    Name of some twenty villages in France.

2)    Also an old French Family, Prince Louis de Conde.

Dessert fruits like  apricots,  pineapple, peaches or pears, poached in  syrup, and dressed on a bed of creamed rice,  coated with an appropriate fruit sauce  and decorated with preserved  cherries and angelica and  served hot or cold .

1.   CRECY

Was the site of an important battle fought by Napoleon.

City and district of France, use of carrots

Puree: of young carrots thickened with barley.

Consommé: rich beef consommé garnished with julienne of carrots.

1.   CIDER

Juice of Apple both fermented and unfermented. The flavor and general quality of all types of cider depends on fruit and skin used in preparation. Hard cider is that which has been fermented until the sugars have changed to alcohol. It is a fermented drink with an apple base; it is refreshing and less alcoholic than wine.

Special apples are used –sweet acid and tart . A good syrup is made with 1/3 sweet and 2/3 sour and acidic apples.

1.    CLARET

The name of fine red wines from Bordeaux .The excellence of claret and the reason why it may rightly claim precedence over all other red wines is that it is harmonious and natural of all.

1.    DAME BLANCHE

1. French white Bordeaux wine
2. “White Lady” – A comic Opera.
3. Dame is the English legal designation, of the wife or the widow of a baronet.

Only dishes white in color should bear this name.

Bombe – lined outside with vanilla ice cream and inside filled with almond paste garnished with whipped vanilla cream and spun sugar.

Consommé: chicken consommé garnished with diced chicken breast and almond flavored royale

Crème – chicken veloute garnished with sago and diced chicken breast.EDRMENTED .

s

ica  served hot or cold .

ted appropriate fruit sauce ff space wi

1.    DAUBE

Ancient term for a Provencal dish of braised meat or poultry.

A ‘pot roast’ or a meat stews, braised en daube, that is, in a stew pot, more or less hermetically sealed.

The old way was to seal the edges of lid of the pot with stiff dough of flour and water which when baked was discarded.

Daubiere: A special saucepan in which meat en daube is cooked.

1.    DAUPHINE

The part of France  which comprised the duchy of the kings eldest son when  France  was  a kingdom, especially  under the Valois  and Bourbon  Families.

Consommé: Chicken consommé with a garnish of asparagus tips, tarragon leaves and royale cut in fancy shapes.

Potatoes:  Duchesse potatoes mixture mixed choux paste, shaped in walnut size balls and deep fried.

1.   DAUPHINOISE

Foods sprinkled with grated Swiss cheese and butter and baked brown.

1.    DIABLE,  A  LA

Devil – devilled, a slightly spiced dish, sharp highly seasoned and accompanied with sauce diable

Diablotins: Small Dumplings, strongly spiced mixture with grated cheese, broiled / browned under grill. Used as an appetizer or soup garnish.

Sauce: Chopped shallots sauté, reduce in vinegar, plus demi glaze, red wine,    Worcestershire sauce and cayenne pepper.

1.    DIANA

Roman goddess of the moon and of hunting, identified with bows and arrows and crescents. Any game preparation garnished with crescent shaped croutons.

1.    DIEPPOISE

In the style of Dieppe, a coastal city of northern France, seafood style.

Crème: Rich fish veloute, garnished with shrimp tails, mussels, sliced mushrooms   finished with cream.

Garnish: Shrimp tails, mussels and mushrooms rich fish veloute sauce.

66.   FORESTIERE

Poulet  sauté  Forestiere: chicken jointed and sautéed  in butter, add sliced mushrooms, diced shallots  and swill the  pan with white wine  and  well reduced  meat glaze; coat with  the sauce  and garnish with rolls  of grilled bacon  and parmentier potatoes.

1.    A  LA  FRANCAISE

French style – term applied to a number of French dishes   cooked and prepared in a simple manner and chiefly denotes   a style of the district in which the chef or cook originally lived.

a) Sole a la Francaise:  whole   or filleted sole dipped in milk and flour, fried and served with tomato   and anchovy sauce.

b) Cotelettes d’agneau a la francaise- breaded lamb cutlets, fried in butter garnished with mixed garden vegetables and sauce Madeira.

1.    FRANCE

The art of French  Hospitality was introduced  in France by Catherine de Medici  during the early  16^th century .This art was  soon  developed   by the  French  cooks  whose imaginative  and creative ability  brought some  improvements   upon the  Italians  heavier way  of preparing dishes. Most of the French dishes bore the name of some saint, some mythical God or some Italian event or celebrity and these show marked evidence of having been created in some other country other than France. Gradually even actresses, actors, singers and poets have all been honored by great French chefs.  Dame Nelly   Melba has her name perpetuated for all times by that still popular dish – Peach Melba.

1.    GARIBALDI

1. Famous Italian patriot born in  Nice, 4^th July  1807, died at Capeira , 2^nd June 1882
2. Guisieppe  Garibaldi  an Italian  general  of world  war  I,  born in Melbourne , 29^th July  1879. Grandson of the Italian patriot.

Consomme Garibaldi – chicken consommé   thickened with cooked spaghetti and garnished with chives cut julienne style. Serve grated cheese separately.

Sauce Garibaldi- A rich brown sauce flavored with garlic, curry, capers, mustard and anchovy paste – served with fish or meat.

1.    GENOISE

Pertaining to the Italian city of Genoa.  In the style of   Genoa as practiced by the French cooks.  It was the name of a sauce served only with fish coated  in  court  bouillon. In confectionery,  cakes made from a genoise   mixture are called “Genoise  Sponge”

1.   GREEK

Greek pertaining  to the Greek style  as  practiced by the  fish cooks, dishes a la grecque   should be of Greek origin  in the  method  of preparation  but in practice this  is  seldom the case  though it  sometimes  happens that   a dish called  a la  grecque  on  a restaurant menu is  of Greek origin. More often the name is given to  dishes  of French origin

Potage  a la  Grecque – puree of   peas  cooked   in mutton  broth  garnished with  vegetables cut julienne style.

1.    GERMANY

Many  favorite foods  are of German origin  specially  Frankfurters and Hamburgers .The Germans are fond of cooking  many foods  sweet and sour;  a  combination of  fruit, sugar, and spices. Lemon and raisins often give the  desired sweet and sour flavor .

German cooks are meticulous and often follow their  own  methods in preparing  and cooking traditional  dishes of their country .To Germany, we owe  a way  of  treating  vegetables (especially cabbage) which makes them palatable and tasty.

1.    GLOUCESTER

1. Name of a long line of Earls and Dukes  dating back to 1121.It  would be correct   to feature dishes so named  on the birthday of the present duke.

2.A port city  and country town –  Gloucestershire, England .

Sauce Gloucester: mayonnaise sauce mixed with sour cream, chopped tarragon   and  flavored with  chilly vinegar, mustard .

Gloucester Royal Pie- This was a pie made in olden times of Lampreys.

These pies were richly decorated with gilded ornaments and often with banners  bearing the  Gloucester  court of arms .

1.     GRIMALDI

1. Giovanni  Francesco,  Italian  architect  painter  and  engraver,  born at Bolgna, 18^th September 1606.
2. Joseph  Grimaldi,  noted actor born 18^th December 1779

Consomme Grimaldi- clear beef broth flavoured with tomato and garnished with celeriac cut julienne  style.

Sole  Grimaldi – rolled or folded fillets,  poached and  dressed  in a  casserole  on a bed  of cooked spaghetti  coated with Nantua  sauce  and topped  with sliced truffle.

1.    HAGGIS

Haggis can be regarded as the  national dish of Scotland. When this dish is served at certain  large  banquets  in Scotland,  it is  accompanied by an  escort of pipers  while  paying homage to their national poet,  Robert Burns.   The Scots  have Haggis  served and presented with due pomp  and ceremony .It is carried in to the room by a servant  who is proceeded   by a piper  and it is  customary  to drink whisky, whilst  eating .The dish consist of thymus gland  stuffed with a mixture  of stuffed offal and oats, and then baked .

1.    HAMBURGER

In the early part of the 18^th century France obtained its best beef from the Triesian plains via Hamburg, a sea port of Germany. The animals were driven in herds over the roads of Europe. The delicious hamburger steaks have now become world famous.

Hamburger Steaks: Finely minced beef  steak seasoned with salt , pepper, nutmeg,  mixed with raw egg,  shaped like  a noisette,  floured and fried in butter,  garnished with   fried onion and  fried egg placed on top.

1.   HOLLANDAISE, A LA

In the style of the Netherlands, as practiced by the French cooks, Dutch style.

Dutch cookery is closely related to that of Belgium. Being a country of rich pasture land, there is an abundance of high quality dairy products specially   cheese, which represents one of the countries largest exports. Holland is a country equally devoted to  stock farming and  fishing,  so the  Dutch table   features a  wide variety  of characteristics  and  salted and smoked  fish.  Herring is the staple food of the Dutch people.

1.    HONGROISE

Hungarian, in the Hungarian   style as practiced by the French cooks.

Dishes prepared a la Hongroise are cooked in a cream sauce seasoned with paprika.

1. Entrecote  a la  Hongroise  — Beef  steak  cooked in butter, cooked with  hongroise  sauce ( veloute  blended  with  sour cream and  white wine  flavoured well with paprika )  and garnish of bacon.

1.    INDIENNE  A  LA

Indian style as practiced by the French cooks

Croquettes a l’indienne: lobster and rice, seasoned with curry powder shaped into croquettes then fried and served with curry sauce.

Potage a l’indienne—Mulligatawny soup with addition of coconut milk and cooked rice.

1.    ITALIENNE

Italian style as practiced by the French cooks.  A  name given to dishes  made of meat, poultry,  fish   and  vegetables  .All  these dishes contain finely chopped mushrooms .The name l’italienne  is also given to  method of preparing  macaroni or other pastas .

Italian  cuisine is one of the oldest in Europe .It is derived from Greek Gourmet tradition, these being  derived  in their  turn from  oriental cuisine .Choose any ordinary  Italian  dish  and it  is  a replica of   one that was once  enjoyed by gourmands  reclining on their balconies in ancient Rome.

Italian Polenta is same as the pulse that the Romans   prepared en route, when they set out to conquer the world .They toasted grains of wheat, crushed them and made a gruel from the result. The only difference is the polenta is now made from coarse maize flour.

Italian cuisine is considered the mother of all European cuisines.

1.    JARDINIERE

Garden  gardeners  style with a variety of vegetables , name  given to  a garnish made of fresh vegetables –carrots and turnips  (shaped with a plain or  fluted ball scoop, cut with a  hollow  tubular cutter or diced ) green peas, small kidney beans, french beans  diced or cut into lozenges,  cauliflower . The vegetables are cooked separately, some boiled, others glazed .They are arranged around the main dish in separate groups. This garnish is served with roast, stewed or braised meats and pot roasted poultry.

Consommé Jardinière: clear soup garnished with a variety of   cooked garden vegetables.

1.    JULIENNE

Jean Julich was a noted French chef who first made   a clear vegetable soup in 1785 with vegetables cut in strips .The name is now applied to all   vegetable garnishes cut in this manner.

1.    LASAGNE

Made of sheets of fresh dough, Lasagna is an  Italian pasta  prepared in any of the  ways  as given for  macaroni and noodles. Lasagna  Lisci  and  Lasagna Ricci  are lasagna  with both sides  grooved in waves .The above name are given to soups  containing these pastas  as  a  garnish. Now flavored   with spinach (green) tomato (red/pink) and squid ink (black) lending a wide variety.

1.    LORETTE

A Parisian woman of the better class, a glamorous woman.

Potatoes: Mashed and creamed, mixed with choux pastry, moulded into crescents and fried in deep fat.

1.   LORRAINE

Province of Alsace – Lorraine.

District   of high gastronomic repute. Here the connoisseur of good cooking will savor many succulent dishes and will find white, rose and red wines all delightful. Though some are more fragrant than others, the dishes of Lorraine are for the most part substantial; heading the list of  culinary specialties of what was once an ancient province. The Quiche Lorraine is perhaps its most famous dish.

1.    LYONNAISE

Lyons , city   of  France ,  in the style of pertaining to  Lyons .The Lyonnaise  district has  an abundance of  good  quality  potatoes  as well as excellent  onions  such as those  of Roanne  which are used in the preparation of a large number of  special dishes.

1.   MALTAISE

Pertaining to the island of Malta.

Potage Maltaise – A thin veal soup with a garnish    diced oranges a little shredded capsicum, chillies and   very small julienne of orange peel.

Ris-de Veau Maltaise — braised with béarnaise sauce decorated with the Maltese cross in Forcemeat.

Sauce maltaise – hollandaise + blood orange juice

1.   MANDARINE

The French form of Mandarin is a small orange from which liqueur is made.

Glace Mandarin—Fill the shells of mandarin oranges with orange ice topped with Meringue and baked quickly.

1.   MARENGO

North Italian village  where the famous  battle of  Marengo  was fought  on 14^th June  1820  between  Napoleon Bonaparte and the Austrians  which victory  was perpetuated  by chef  Dunard,  Napoleon’s  chef;  by his creation of  a chicken  dish on the battle field itself .

Poulet sauté Marengo. It is characterized by a garnish of crayfish tails, poached egg on heart shaped croutons and parsley.

1.   MARMITE

Stock pot , metal  or  Earthen ware , covered pot with or without   feet depending on whether it  is used  for cooking in the hearth or  on the stove .

Petit marmite—Name  of a  clear  savory broth , a type of hot  pot cooked  and served in  an earthenware  pot .This broth  was invented in Paris  and is much prized  by gourmets.

1.  MAYRLAND

One of the original 13 states of   U S A  famous for its culinary creations.

Chicken Maryland — Crumb fried joints, garnished with corn fritters, bacon rashers, grilled tomato and fried plantains.

1.   MAYONNAISE

Speculation says that this sauce was invented by chef to the Duke Richelieu after the victory of  MAHON ( Mahonnaise). Others are convinced that Spain should be given credit for its origin.  Mayonnaise is probably a corruption of Moyeeinoise derived from the old French word Moyeau which means egg yolk.

Basically, it is a cold sauce with the basic ingredients of egg yolks and oil blended into an emulsion.

1.   MELBA

Dame Nelly Melba a British Operatic Soprano. Her real name was Helen Porter   Mitchell.  She adopted the stage name Melba as she was a native of Melbourne Australia.

Peach Melba: Scoops of vanilla ice cream topped with poached peach halves and glazed with raspberry jam/sauce.

1.   MERINGUE

Small patisserie made from egg white and sugar. It is said that the dish was invented in 1720 by a Swiss pastry cook called Gasparine   who practiced his art in Meringham, a small town in the province of Saxe- Coburg.   Until  the beginning  of the 19^th century,  meringues  were  shaped in  a  spoon as the  pastry  forcing  bag  had not   yet been invented .

1.   MEUNIERE

Miller, Miller’s   wife’s style

Method of cooking fish which is seasoned lightly, floured and fried in butter. To serve, squeeze a few drops of lemon juice and cover it. Sprinkle with parsley and pour on the cooking butter piping hot.  e.g.  Sole meuniere.

1.  MEXICAINE

Pertaining to the Republic of Mexico, in the Mexican style as prepared by the French chefs.

Potage Mexican – Puree of tomato soup with seasoned consommé.

Poulet sauté Mexicaine: Mushrooms capsicum and tomato (garnish).

1.   MIGNONETTE

Small and delicate

Potatoes: cut thicker than match potatoes (alumettes) and cooked the same way.

1.   MILANAISE

In the style of Milan, an Italian city. The usual garnish is spaghetti with shredded tongue, truffles and mushrooms blended with a puree of tomato and sprinkled with grated Parmesan cheese. Breaded meats have grated cheese mixed with bread crumbs and served with tomato sauce.

Choufleur Milanese—cooked   buds of cauliflower sauté in butter,                        with grated cheese, buttered and baked.

Soufflé Milanese: lemon flavored soufflé, coated with biscuit crumbs and spiked with pistachio nuts.

1.   MILLE  FEUILLE

“Thousand Leaves” puff paste   – a pastry very much in vogue in Paris. It is made by arranging thin layers of flaky pastry one on top of the other   with layers of cream or some other filling in between. Mille Feuille  can be baked in the form of a large sweet  decorated in various  ways;  or as  in Paris  Patisseries  in small  individual  portions  by cutting  the flaky pastry  in pieces  5cm  wide  and laying  them  one on top of the other  sandwiched as mentioned above.

1. MINUTE

60 seconds – something small or short a la minute – hurriedly prepared sole and other such fish when filleted are cooked meuniere style.

Minute Tenderloins – These are 4- 5 oz size, cut thin and sautéed with minced shallots and herbs.

Pommes minute: diced and fried.

1. MIREPOIX

Duc de, French Noble Family.

Foundation ingredients of most brown soups, sauces and the first step in braising, being the preparation of the fat, aromatic vegetables, herbs etc… sauté to gain a brown color.

101.     MORNAY

1. Phillip De Plessis Mornay, French Protestant, born 5^th November 1549.
2. Name given to a rich creamy sauce loaded with Parmesan cheese.

Sole Mornay – Poached and coated with Mornay Sauce and glazed.

1. NANTUA

A town in France

Sauce: Bechamel reduced with rich fish fumet, finished with crayfish or prawn butter.

Garniture for fish – Crayfish (or Prawns) tails with nantua sauce and slices of truffle.

Omelets – filled with chicken and truffle salpicon & sauce nantua.

1. NEAPOLITAINE

In the style of Naples city of Southern Italy often applied to dishes containing 3 distinct colors – red, white and green…the colors of the Italian flag..

Consommé: Clear game soup garnished with shreds of ham and celery and a generous amount of Macaroni.

Sauce: Brown sauce reduced with claret and red currant jelly with minced ham shallots grated horseradish flavored with bay leaf, cloves and thyme.

Glace – Ice cream layered in 3 distinct colors and flavors in oblong moulds and cut into oblong slices.

1. NAVARIN

Pertaining to the great town of Navarine in Italy, the scene of a battle on 20^th October 1827.

Navarin Printanier – A rich brown lamb or mutton stew with carrots, turnips and potatoes.

1. NICOISE

In the style of Nice, city of southern France.

Consommé – Consommé with vermicelli and peeled tomatoes cut in small squares. Bring to a boil, serve grated cheese separately

Sauce: Demi glace and tomato Puree.

Garniture for fish – chopped tomatoes sautéed with garlic, Lemon slices and anchovy fillets topped with capers.

Salad – French beans, tomatoes, potatoes, olives and anchovy fillets.

1. NOISETTE

Hazelnut.  Also term, applied to small, round, boneless, fatless pieces of meat such as small loins of lamb, rolled, thin cuts into dainty rounds.

1. Butter – Clarified butter browned hazelnut color
2. Sauce – supreme sauce, noisette butter, pounded hazelnut.
3. Potatoes – small hazelnut sized potatoes, sautéed in butter or fried in deep fat to golden yellow.

1. NORMANDE

In the style of Normandy, north western province of France, Chief characteristics of fish dishes being  mussels, oysters and shrimps with apples featured in most  meat,  poultry and game recipes.

Sauce: white sauce finished with egg yolks and butter flavored with lemon juice reduced cream.

Potatoes: Sliced, cooked in casserole with milk, onions and leeks browned on top under a grill.

1. ORIENTALE

Pertaining to the Oriental, Eastern Style.

Consommé: Carrots and turnips shaped like half moons, boiled, served hot in consommé with plain boiled rice.

Sauce: Sauce Americaine, with diced onion sauté lightly and flavored with curry.

1. ORLY

Bernard van Orly, noted Flemish painter.  Fish or meat coated with rice egg batter, fried in deep fat and usually served with tangy tomato sauce.

Sauce – rich white sauce blended with meat extract and loaded                                with tomato puree.

1. PALOISE

Pertaining to Palus, the low lying vine yards of Gironde is France producing the cheaper types of carrots.

Sauce – Bearnaise sauce with an infusion of fresh mint.

1. PARISIENNE

In the style of Paris, dishes usually dressed elaborately

1. Consommé – Garnish of vegetables white leeks and custard royal.
2. Sauce – Rich brown sauce with chopped parsley and shallots, Madeira and meat glaze with fresh butter fine herbs.
3. Potatoes – Marble size potatoes, sautéed in butter sprinkle and chopped herbs.

Chicken Sauté – jointed chicken sautéed in butter, seasoned with done, cooked in tomato sauce with fresh sliced mushrooms for 2 minutes. Serve Chicken dressed on a platter cover with sauce and garnish with Macaroni in cream.

1. PARMENTIER

Antoine Augustin (1737-1813) French agriculturist, writer and food expert. In 1786, he introduced the potato to France and created many styles of cooking this tuber.

Potatoes – Cut into large diced blanched and cooked in casserole with butter and chopped parsley.

1. PARMESAN

Cheese made in Parma, Italy, from cow’s milk, very hard, used as a garnish/topping for many Italian pasta dishes, soup and chicken for which it is a proper partner.

1. PAYSANNE

In the peasant style, farmer’s wife style. Usually dishes prepared in a pot or casserole with onions, salt pork, and artichoke bottoms.

Potatoes – Sliced smothered and chopped onions, sorrel, chervil and baked in the oven with pork drippings.

1. PERIGOURDINE  /   A LA PERIGORD

Pertaining to Perigord, in France. Dishes finished with truffles from that district.

Sauce: Perigourdine – Demi glace with foie gras puree. Garnished with slices of Truffles.

1. POIVRADE

A piquant pepper sauce.

Sauce – a brown pepper sauce, flavored with ham, onions, celery, bay leaf, and thyme, reduced with vinegar and black pepper.

1. POLONAISE

Polish style as practiced by French chefs.

Sauce – Veloute with sour cream, chopped fennel, lemon juice and grated horse radish.

1. POMPADOUR

Jeanne Antoinette Poison Le Normand D’etrores, Marquis De Pompadour. Mistress of Louis the XV of France, born 29^th December 1721 had a great influence in the politics of France.

Consommé – Chicken Consommé garnished with turnips and carrots, pink, green and plain royal, fancily cut.

Salad – Sprigs of cooked cauliflower, sliced potatoes, celeriac, seasoned with celery salt.

Sauce – Allemande or Veloute with slightly cooked minced shallots, cream, egg yolks chopped mushrooms and parsley.

1. PORTERHOUSE

Porter House steak – A thick Steak cut from the middle of the ribs of beef ½” – 2” thick.

1. PORTUGAISE

Consommé – A rich clear beef soup with stoned and halved prunes, diced ripe tomatoes and strips of leeks.

Sauce – Tomato sauce reduced with rich veal gravy, flavored with garlic and onion and chopped parsley.

Garniture – small stuffed tomatoes, chateau Potatoes with tomato sauce.

1. POULETTE

Name of a very popular velvet like sauce made with an egg liaison.

Sauce – rich white sauce flavored with herbs thickened with egg yolks and fresh butter, finished with lemon juice and chopped parsley.

2.   troduced the potato to f MaccPRINCE, PRINCESSE, PRINCIERRE (Prince, Princess, Princely)

Consommé – Clear chicken broth garnished with diced chicken and asparagus points.

Sauce – White fish sauce, enriched with crayfish, butter, finely shredded crayfish and truffles.

1. PRINTANIER, A LA PRINTANIERE, PRINTEMPS

Spring like, spring, spring time.

Potage Printanier – Soup made of spring vegetables.

Consommé – A clear soup garnished with spring vegetables which may be ball shaped or cut finely.

Sauce – Rich Veloute and puree of green vegetables with finely cubed green vegetables.

125.     PROVENCALE

Of Provence, formally a maritime province of France. A la Provencale in the style of that region usually implies that garlic, olive oil and tomatoes  have been used.

1.   RATAFIA

The word is believed to stem from Mala tafia, a spirit of liqueur made from cane sugar. This has taken on certain occasions to ratify a treaty or agreement. The drink is now a light liqueur with a slightly bitter almond flavor.

1.   RAVIGOTTE, RAVIGOTER:

To revive, refresh

Sauce (hot) white sauce flavored with fine herbs reduced with white wine and vinegar and finished with butter and cream.

Sauce (Cold) a spicy mayonnaise colored green with spinach puree  mixed with finely chopped chives, parsley and tarragon.

1.   REFORME

After the style of the famous Reform Club where Alexis Soyer was the chef.

Garnished for cutlets and entrees – julienne of ham, tongue, truffles, boiled white of egg, mushrooms, carrots and beetroot and gherkins + reform sauce.

Sauce: Poivrade sauce diluted with port wine and red currant jelly.

1.   RICHELIEU

Cardinal Armand Jean Du Plessis De Bonn in Paris.

Consommé – beef consommé garnished chicken quenelles julienne of carrots and turnips with shredded chervil.

Sauce – Rich brown sauce with Madeira wine and meat extract.

1.   RISOTTO

Italian Arborio rice,  moistened with broth. Seasoned, steamed in covered pan without stirring. White wine, butter and grated cheese are then added.

1.   ROBERT

1. Name of one of the earliest kings of France.
2. King of Naples, son of Charles  II
   1.                                                              i.      Sauce – rich brown sauce and chopped sautéed onions reduced with chilly vinegar, red wine, and prepared mustard, spicy and pungent.
   2.                                                            ii.      Potatoes – Sliced and stewed in Robert sauce or baked, scooped out pulp flavored with chives shaped into patties and shallow fried.

1.   ROMAINE

In the manner pertaining to Rome.

Potage – chicken stock, rice, onions, carrots, celery, cream seasoning.

1.  ROQUEFORT

French cheese made from Ewe’s milk which has attained a world wide reputation. The green mottling develops around bread crumbs that are used in preparing it.

1.  ROSSINI

Gironde Antonio famous Italian Opera composer.  Born at Pasio, friend of Cooks and Maitres d’ Hotel in the cosmopolitan restaurants of Europe.

Tournedos and Filet Mignons

Italian Method: Sautéed in butter, placed on a lightly fried slice of bread and garnished with asparagus tips braised white Italian Truffles and small grilled tomatoes; surrounded with demi glaze.

French Method: The boiled tenderloin is topped with sliced foie gras tossed in butter, masked with Madeira sauce.

1.   ROYAL, ROYALE, A LA ROYALE – REGAL – Kingly Style

Custard royal – Seasoned eggs with milk or Consommé steamed cut into cubes maybe flavored with / or covered variously with puree of vegetables, poultry or game.

Consommé – Beef Consommé garnished with plain royale custard.

1.    RUSSIA

Russians were real gourmets. They knew how to eat and how to prepare a dish that was always delicious to the palette. Their Zakuski is a somewhat elaborate overture in a meal. The famous Russian Caviar is relished on the French table.

Borscht – Beef Soup cooked with red beets, onions, celery, cabbage, potatoes and carrots. Served with sour cream.

Blinis – pancakes made from Buckwheat flour served with smoked sturgeon or salmon and caviar, sour cream and melted butter.

Shashlik Moscow – Loin of pork pickled and broiled on a skewer before an open fire served with cooked or raw vegetables.

Baklava – Original pastry dough made of dough, honey, nuts, and butter.

Russian Rum Baba – A delicious yeast cake flavored with salt, sugar, spiced with cinnamon and cooked in rum.

1.   SABAYON

An Italian wine cream or egg punch served as dessert sweet in glasses and eaten with a spoon. Zabaglione or Zabaione in Italian. Also refers to a thick consistency obtained by beating egg yolks and sugar vigorously.

1.   ST. GERMAINE

Suburb of Paris where a castle was built by Louis VI, Treaty of St. Germaine – was signed here.

Crème – Puree of peas and onions, with veal stock, enriched with cream and egg; garnished with sprigs of fresh mint.

1.   SOUBISE

Charles de Rohan, Prince de Soubise, peer and marechal of France.

Sauce: A rich creamy sauce blended with onion puree seasoned with sugar, salt, pepper, nutmeg.

1.   SPAIN

Spanish food is highly flavored and colorful with the use of pimentos and tomatoes. Spaniards claim to have first made mayonnaise and sauce espagnole. A characteristic feature of Spanish cooking is a mixture of a number of ingredients in one dish. Most of their cooking is done in oil as butter is expensive.

1.  STANLEY

Sir Henry Morton, famous British explorer of Africa.

Sauce – Rich cream sauce with grated horseradish and curry powder.

1.   STRUDEL

A Viennese desert specialty of wafer thin dough in roll form with chopped apples, pistachios, raisins, sugar, lemon rind, cinnamon.

1.   SUPREME

1. Highest best quality.
2. The best parts of poultry, breast of chicken.

Sauce – Rich white velvet sauce made from well cleared chicken broth enriched with cream.

Lobster – Diced lobster mixed with chopped olives, hard boiled eggs, capers, French dressing, chilled and served on a bed of chilled lettuce, surround alternately with slices of cucumber and tomato, garnished with lobster claws.

1.   SUZETTE

Said to be the name of the lady friend of a V.I.P.; at the end of the 19^th century, during whose visit to a humble Parisian cabaret, the Crepe Suzette were created in her honor by chef Henry Charpentier.

Crepes – Thin pancake doused in a thick sauce of orange juice, lemon juice, butter, sugar flavored with rind and orange liqueur flamed with brandy and served hot.

1.  THERMIDOR

Name given during the French revolution to the 11^th month of the year in the republican calendar.

Lobster – Roasted Lobster meat in a cream sauce with shallots, Parsley, Mustard, Tarragon meat, butter. Arranged in the shell sprinkled with grated cheese ground in oven.

1.   TUTTI FRUTTI

An Italian term used in connection with ice cream where various kinds of candied fruits are used.

1.   TYROLIENNE

In the manner of Tyrol; an Austrian province in the Alps.

Sauce (Cold) – Tomato Mayonnaise Sauce.

Sauce (Hot) – Rich hollandaise with Tomato Puree.

1.   VERDI

Giuseppe Fortino Francesco – Famous Italian Operatic composer and singer. Born in 1913

Sole – Folded fillets, poached in wine, dressed on cooked macaroni mixed with shreds of truffle and lobster coated with cheese sauce and glazed.

1.   VERONIQUE

French form of Veronica, characterized by use of seedless grapes.

Sole – Rolled, poached fillets dressed with 3-4 grapes (peeled and piped) on each and coated with a blend of sauce Hollandaise and sauce Vin Blanc.

1.   VERT-PRE

Green Meadow – dishes served with fresh green vegetables. Garnish for chicken consommé. Green Peas, asparagus tips, French beans, lettuce, chervil, chicory.

1.   VICHY

City of France, a noted Spa, Vichy Celestine is a practically flavourless water and may be used as table water.

Potage – Puree of red carrots with cream liaison.

Carrots – glazed with butter, sugar, salt, parsley in Vichy water.

1.    VIRGINIA

Southern state of USA noted for its food.

Ham – A fine ham, flat and lean of the “Rapos” Black pig, peanut fed and chicory smoked.

Chicken – Sauté fillets in butter moistened with cream; braise to finish.  Serve on a slice of Virginia ham, and corn fritters garnish.

1.    WALDORF

One of New York’s famous Hotels. The Waldorf Astoria, the old Waldorf having being names after the village of Waldorf near Heidelberg, Germany.

Salad – Juliennes of celery, diced apples, mixed with mayonnaise, set on a bed of lettuce, sprinkled with chopped walnuts.

Eggs – Poached eggs on a canapé spread with foie gras and a mushroom on top. Served with Madeira sauce and truffles.

Tomato: filled with Waldorf salad.

1.   WALEWASKI, WALEVSKA

Polish Countess, the mistress of Napoleon I; bore him a son who then become Count Walewaski, French politician, diplomat and author.

Sole – Poached folded fillets, dressed on a ragout of sliced lobster, mushroom and truffle, blended with lobster sauce, coated with cheese sauce and glazed under the salamander.

Omelets – Stuffed with diced lobster, truffles, caviar.

1.   WELLINGTON

Arthur Wellesley, first Duke of Wellington famous for victory over Napoleon at the battle of  Waterloo in June 1815.

Beef – Seasoned beef wrapped in pate, duxelle and puff pastry. Baked and sliced and served with Madeira sauce.

SUNIL KUMAR

SIHM ROHTAK

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CHAPTER 32: AN INTRODUCTION TO CHINESE CUISINE

 

INTRODUCTION

As one travels around the world today, one cannot help being impressed by the extent to which Chinese food and cooking has been established in almost every corner of the earth.  But this popularization of the Chinese cuisine seems to have gathered a sudden and overwhelming momentum only in the last couple of decades.  So, what is it that has caused this sudden success of Chinese cuisine?  The answer lies in the unique traditions and techniques of Chinese cooking, and in the inherent appeal of Chinese food and flavors to the palate. Also Chinese food can be extremely economical as well as being highly nutritious, because, most ingredients are cut into small pieces, and then quickly cooked so as to retain their natural goodness.

Trade and cultural change between China and the outside world took place as early as the time of the Roman Empire and over the past centuries, foreign influence and modern technology has affected nearly all walks of everyday life in China, except one, namely, the Culinary Art of China.  In fact, foreign foodstuffs have been introduced in China since the dawn of history, but they all became integral parts of Chinese food.

Obviously, Chinese culinary art has gone through thousands of years of refinement and development, but the Chinese unique way of cooking and preparing food, remains basically unchanged.  Archaeological finds of the bronze age (around 1850 BC) indicate that the Chinese had utensils such as bronze CLEAVER for cutting up foods into small pieces and cooking them in animal fat, using a bronze pot not dissimilar to the modern wok.  There is data to prove that as long as the ZHOU dynasty (12^th C BC) the Chinese used soya sauce, vinegar, rice wine, fruit jam and spices as seasonings in the cooking and that elaborate and complicated cooking methods were already being employed.

By the time of China’s greatest sage CONFUCIUS (551 – 479 BC) who was an acknowledged gourmet besides, it was recorded that the importance of heat application and blending of different flavors were emphasized in Chinese cooking; and the uses of high, moderate or low heat, the blending of sour, piquant, salty, bitter or sweet flavors were all given their correct application in order to achieve a harmonious whole.  This theory of harmony is one of the main characteristics of Chinese cuisine of this day.

THE MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF CHINESE CUISINE

There exists a certain ‘uniqueness’ that distinguishes Chinese cooking from other food cultures.  To start with, there is the Chinese division when preparing and serving food, between ‘FAN’ (grain & other starch food) and ‘CAI’ (meat and vegetable dishes). Grains in various forms of rice or wheat flours (bread, pancakes, noodles or dumplings) make up the FAN half of the meal.  Vegetables and meat (including poultry, meat and fish) cut up and mixed in various combinations into individual dishes constitute the CAI half.  A balanced meal must have an appropriate amount of both FAN & CAI.  It is in combining various ingredients and the lending of different flavors for the preparation of CAI, that lies the fine art and skill of Chinese cuisine.

The other distinctive feature of Chinese cuisine is the harmonious blending of colors, aromas, flavors, shapes and texture in one single CAI dish.  The principle of blending complimentary or contrasting colors and flavors is a fundamental one – the different ingredients must not be mixed indiscriminately.  The matching of flavors should follow a set pattern and is controlled and not casual.  The cutting of ingredients is another important element of Chinese cooking in order to achieve the proper effect. Slices are matched with slices, shreds with shreds, cubes with cubes, chunks with chunks and so on.

This is not only for the sake of appearance but also because ingredients of the same size and shape require about the same amount of time in cooking.  This complexity of interrelated element of colors, flavors and shapes in Chinese cooking is reinforced by yet another feature: TEXTURE.  A dish may have just one, or several textures, such as tenderness, crispiness, crunchiness, smoothness and softness.  The textures to be avoided are: sogginess, stringiness and hardness.  The selection of different textures in one single dish is an integral part of blending of flavors and colors.  The desired texture or textures in any dish can only be achieved by using the right cooking methods.  In all different methods of cooking, the correct degree of heat and duration of cooking time are of vital importance.

REGIONAL COOKING STYLES

 

Looking at the map of China, it is not difficult to understand why there should be such a rich variety of different styles throughout the land.  There is no official classification of various regional cuisines in China, but it is generally agreed that SICHUAN in west, SHANDONG in North, CANTON in the south and JIANGSU in the east represents the four major regional cooking styles of China.  In addition, four more provinces ZHEJIANG, FUKIEN, ANHUI in the east and HUNAN in the west are usually included in the roll of honour while one talks of the “Big Eight” distinguished schools of cuisine in China.

Now Peking cuisine is quite a different matter – it is not a separate regional school, but rather the combination of all China’s regional style of cooking.  Being the capital of China for many centuries Peking (or Beijing as it is now called) occupies a unique position in the development of Chinese culinary art.  Peking cuisine has been defined by the eminent Chinese gourmet Kenneth Lo as “The crystallization of many inventions and performance of the generations of important chefs of different dynasties which have ruled in Peking for nearly a millennium, and the grass root dishes of the locality which people of Shandong and Hubei have been in the habit of preparing together with all the culinary contributions which have flowed from the far flung regions and provinces of China and which over the years have established their reputation in the old capital”.  Peking cooking is in short, the top table of Chinese culinary art.  Finally, the central province HUBEI in the middle reaches Yangtze River has a distinct style of cooking, known as “The Province of Thousand Lakes” as well as “Land of Fish and Rice”.  One of Hubei’s specialties is its fish cookery.

The Northern School:

Archaeological evidence shows that in about 5000 BC, the inhabitants of North China had begun to farm, settle down and make painted pottery, eating and cooking vessels.  Some of the most conspicuous traces of early Chinese culture have been found at sites that lie along the valley of the Yellow River, which is why this area is sometimes described as the “Cradle of Chinese Civilization”.

Two ancient capitals of LUOYANG and KEIFENG are both situated just south of the Yellow River in HUNAN province (“HU” is the Chinese word for “river” and “NAN” means “south”).  The noblemen and the imperial families live in such luxury that their chefs invented and perfected many of the Chinese classic dishes.  These recipes were passed down through the centuries, and were moved to the capital, Peking and beyond.  The same recipes are still in use all over China even to this day – with very little changes.

Besides the cooking of TIANZING is Hubei, in which province Peking is also situated, the Northern School embraces the distinguished cooking style of SHANDONG and SHANXI, as well as Chinese Moslem cooking of inner Mongolia and XINJIANG (details of Chinese Moslem food will be discussed under separate heading).

The Western School: 

The red basin of SICHUAN or SZECHWAN is one of the richest lands of China.  Owing to its geographical position it was practically inaccessible from the rest of China until recently therefore it developed a very distinct style of cooking.  Its richly flavored and piquant food has influenced its neighboring province of HUNAN and GUIZHOU, although they both have a style of their own.

The province of Sichuan is the most popular in China, with an estimated 1 billion inhabitants or about 10% of the nation’s total population.  High mountains, fending off the cold air from the world, encircle the basin, so Sichuan has hot summers and mild winters.  It is virtually frost free with abundant rainfall in winters and spring.  Plant growth continues the whole year round.  One of China’s important rice bowls, the Sichuan Basin also yields a wealth of subtropical products, including silk, fruit and tea, all which have earned Sichuan the name “Land of Abundance”.  The cuisine of Sichuan has a wide fan following both at home and abroad.  Its richly flavored and hot food is particularly popular in the Indian Subcontinent.  But not all the dishes from here are hot and spicy; many people outside China believe that all you need to cook Sichuan food is to use a lot of ginger, garlic, pepper and chillie.  This is entirely untrue.  The Sichuan prides itself into distinct creating 100 distinct flavors for 100 individual dishes.

Hot chilies are used not to paralyze the tongue but to stimulate the palate.  One of the characteristics of Sichuan cuisine is that each dish usually contains a number of different flavors such as sweet, sour, bitter and hot, salty, aromatic and fragrant.  When the palate is stimulated by mildly hot chilies, it becomes more sensitive and capable of taking in several different flavors simultaneously.

The Eastern School:

The Yangtze, China’s longest river (about 500km in length), which traverses the width of China from west to east flows through China’s leading agricultural regions – Sichuan and Hunan (on the upper reaches), Hubei and Jiangzi (on the middle reaches), Jiangsu and Zhejiang (on the lower), which contains some of the most fertile land in China.

Both wheat and rice are grown here, as well as other crops, which include – barley, corn, sweet potatoes, peanuts and soya beans.  Fisheries abound in the multitude of lakes and other tributaries and deep-sea fishing has long been established in the coastal province and Jiangsu and Zhejiang.  The areas that cover the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze are traditionally referred to as ‘Land of Fish and Rice’, and is collectively known as Jiangnan (“JIANG” means “great river” referring to the Yangtze and “NAN” referring to the south), and it boasts a number of distinctive cooking styles.

The Yangtze River delta has its own cooking style known as HUAIYANG with the culinary center in Shanghai, that is China’s largest city, which lies on the Yangtze estuary.  South East China has always been regarded as the most culturally developed and economically prosperous region.  Both Nanjing in Jiangsu and Hangzhou in Zhejiang have been China’s capital of several dynasties; other culinary centers are to be located in YANGZHOU (Yangchow), SUZHOU and ZHENJIANG.  Yangchow fried rice; chow mein (open fried noodles), wantons, spring rolls, dumplings and many other Cantonese dimsum dishes have all originated from here.

South of Zhejiang is the province FUJIAN (FUKIEN) which is sometimes grouped in the Eastern School, but its cooking style is more influenced by its southern neighbor Canton, so very often Fukien cuisine is included with Cantonese in the Southern School.

The Southern School:

The Pearl River delta, with Canton as a provincial capital of GUANGDONG (KWANGTUNG), is undoubtedly the home of the most famous of all Chinese cooking styles.  Unfortunately the reputation of Cantonese cuisine has been badly damaged by a so-called ‘chop suey’ food outside China.  Authentic Cantonese food has no rival, and has greater variety of food than any other school, because Canton was the first Chinese port open for trade, therefore foreign influence are particularly stronger in its cooking.

Fisheries play a major role in the economy, Guangdong contributes about one fourth of China’s fish catch (over 20% of the fish caught here are fresh water fish).  Rice is dominant food grain; the other crops are tea, tobacco, peanut, sugarcane, and sub tropical fruits such as bananas, pineapples, oranges, tangerines and lychees.

HAINAN Island is the only truly tropical area of China and produces coconuts, coffee, natural rubber and figs.  The Southern School consists of three distinct styles of cooking:  CANTON, CHAOCHOW (Swatow), and DONGJIANG (also known as HAKKA), which means ‘family of guest’, which refers to the immigrants from North China who settled in the South during the Song Dynasty after the invasion of Mongols in the 13^th century.  So it was the Hakka’s who introduced noodles, wantons and dumplings etc. into the Cantonese diet.

There was a mass immigration overseas after the 17^th. century, both by the Cantonese and the Hakka.  When Swatow was opened to foreign trade in 1858, it became a major port for Chinese immigration to South East Asia, America and Europe.  That is why, the first Chinese restaurant to open abroad introduced only Cantonese cooking to the outside world.  There are two other schools, though not regional in character, nevertheless should be included here among China’s various styles of Schools of Cooking, namely the Moslem and Vegetarian School.

The Moslem School:

The Chinese Moslem known as “HUI”, though Chinese speaking are distinguished from the Chinese by their affiliation with the Sunni branch of Islam.  One theory is that they are descendants of the Moslems who settled in China in the 13^th. century and adopted the Chinese language and culture.

There are nearly 5 million Hui widely distributed throughout almost every province in China, but their traditional areas of settlement is in the North-West with heavy concentration in Hunan, Shanki, Hubei and Shangdong.  They form the Chinese Moslem School, together with two other national minorities: the UYGOR group in XINJIANG (4 million, virtually all Moslems); and about 1.5 million MONGOLS who are traditionally nomadic, and therefore, like the Moslem do not eat pork.  Their daily diet consists of beef, mutton, milk and butter, items an average Chinese has no taste for.

The Vegetarian School:

Chinese vegetarians are not allowed anything remotely associated with animals; apart from egg and milk.  They obtain their proteins mainly from soya beans and its byproducts such as bean curd (tofu) and nuts and fungi.

Chinese vegetarian has a long history; its origin can be traced to as far back as around 500 BC, when the TAOIST SCHOOL of THOUGHT developed the hygienic and nutritional science of fruit and vegetables.  Some centuries later, when Buddhism, which abhors the killing of any living creature and the eating of flesh in any form, was introduced into China from India, this philosophy was readily grafted into TAOIST school of Cooking and a new form of vegetarianism was born.

Apart from the extensive use of fresh and dehydrated vegetables, the vegetarian chefs have developed a new art by creating food that has become known as imitation meats.These imitation pork, chicken, fish and prawn and so on bare an amazing resemblance to their fleshy counterpart in form and texture, though not quite in flavor.

EQUIPMENT

UTENSILS:

The Chinese batterie de cuisine consists of very few basic implements.  To start with, only four of the most rudimentary implements are essential to cook Chinese food, i.e. cleaver, chopping block, wok and stirrer.

In western kitchen, equivalent equipments are always valuable.  Cutting knives and board, pots and frying pans, fish slicer and cooking spoons, so on and so forth.  But the Chinese cooking utensils are ancient designs, they are made of basic and inexpensive material, and they have been in continuous use for several thousand years, therefore they do serve a special function that they are more sophisticated and much more expensive western counterparts prove to be rather inadequate.

As for the rest of cooking utensils such sieves, spatula, strainer, casserole and steamer etc., again you will find the western version to be less effective.

CLEAVER:

Let me state straight away that I disagree with calling the Chinese kitchen knife a Cleaver.  As you know the term “cleaver” applies to ‘heavy duty chopper’ that serves only one function, and in my mind not all that efficient unless you buy one that weighs a ton and probably will cost you an arm and a leg – sorry about the pun!!!.  While as the Chinese cleaver (I will call it by that name for the time being), since it is the generally accepted term in English, is an all purpose cook’s knife that is used for slicing, shredding, peeling, pounding, crushing, chopping and even for transporting cut food from the chopping board or to a plate directly to the wok.

At the first sight, a Chinese cleaver may appear to be hefty, gleaming ominously sharp.  But in reality it is quite light, steady and not at all dangerous to use, provided you handle it correctly and with care.  Once you have learned to regard it as a kitchen tool mainly used for cutting and not just a chopper, then you will be surprised how easy and simple it is to use compared to an ordinary kitchen knife.  Cleavers are available in a variety of materials and weight.  They all have a blade of about 8 – 9 inches (20 – 23 cms) long and 3 – 4 inches (8 – 10 cms) wide.  The heaviest, weighing almost 2 lb.  (1 kg) called CHOPPER, is really meant for the professionals and is excellent for chopping bones such as drumsticks, pork spare ribs.  The smaller and much lighter SLICER with a thinner and sharper blade is convenient for slicing meat and vegetables.  But most Chinese cooks prefer a medium weight, dual purpose cleaver known as THE CIVIL AND MILITARY KNIFE (wen-wu dao in Chinese).  You use the lighter, front half of the blade for slicing, shredding and scoring etc, and the heavier, rear half of the blade for chopping and so on.

The Chinese cook uses the back of the blade as a pounder and tenderizer and the flat side of the blade for crushing and transporting: the end of the handle acts as a pestle for grinding spices etc.  The blades of a cleaver should be made of tempered carbon steel with wooden handle.  Stainless steel cleavers with metal handle may look good, but require more frequent sharpening also the handle gets slippery; therefore they are less satisfactory for both safety and steadiness.

Always keep your cleaver blade sharp and clean.  To prevent it rusting and getting it stained, wipe it dry with cloth or kitchen paper after use. Sharpen it frequently on a fine fine-grained whet stone.  Try getting a whet stone (also known as oilstone, which is man made composition of silicon carbide) that has two different grades of surface.  Use a rough grain surface only if the blade has become blunt and the finer grained surface for a sharp finish to the edge.  Lubricate the stone with vegetables oil or water and then put a damp cloth beneath it for stability.  Hone the cleaver evenly on both sides to keep the blade straight and sharp.  After cleaning the blade and wiping it fry, hang the cleaver by the handle to keep the blade becoming dulled on other metals in the drawer.

 

CHOPPING BLOCK: 

The traditional Chinese chopping block is a cross section tree trunk.  Made of hardwood, they range from about 12 inches (30 cms.) in diameter and 2 inches (5 cms.) thick, to giant ones up to 20 inches (50 cms.) by 6 – 8 inches (15 – 20 cms.).  The ideal size should be about 16 inches (40 cms.) in diameter and at least 3 – 4 in (7 – 10 cms.) thick to be of real use.

To prevent it from splitting, season a new block with a liberal dose of vegetable oil on both sides.  Let the wood absorb as much oil as it will take, and sponge the block with salt and water and dry it thoroughly.  Never soak the block in water nor wash it with any detergent – after each use, just scrape it clean with the blade of your cleaver, then wipe the surface with a sponge or cloth wrung out in plain hot water.  Always stand the block on its side when not in use.

In a professional kitchen, the health regulations specify that you must never cut your raw ingredients and cooked food on the same surface.  In other words, you should use a different block or board for the two types of food for hygienic reasons.  One answer to this is to get plastic chopping board made of white acrylic which will not split, smell or warp, and is easy to clean but it has no aesthetic appeal whatever, personally I would recommend a large board of hard wood, at least 2” thick (5 cms.) that will take a heaviest blow with a cleaver.  If you use one side for chopping only, then the other side should remain smooth for pastry making.

WOK: 

The Chinese cooking utensils known as ‘WOK’ is the ‘POT’ or ‘PAN’ the correct translation should be GOU. But wok it is and wok it shall remain. The wok was designed with a rounded bottom to fit snugly over a traditional Chinese braizer or oven, which burned wood, charcoal or coal. It conducts and retains heat evenly and because of its shape, the food always returns to the center of the wok where the heat is most intense that is why it is ideally suited for quick stir-frying.

Of course the wok is far more versatile than just a frying pan, it is also ideal for deep frying; its conical shape requires far less oil than a flat-bottomed deep-fryer, and has more depth (which means more heat) and more frying surface (which means that more food can be cooked more quickly at one go). Furthermore, since the wok has a large capacity on the upper end and as the oil level rises when the raw ingredients are added to it, there is little chance for the oil to overflow and cause the pan to catch fire as often is the case with the conventional deep fryer.

Besides being a frying pan (deep or shallow), a wok is also used for braising, steaming, boiling, and even smoking – in other words the whole spectrum of Chinese cooking method can be executed in one single use utensil. Basically there are only two different types of wok – the DOUBLE HANDLED WOK with two handles on two opposite sides, and the frying pan type SINGLE HANDLED WOK. Both types are usually made of light weight iron or carbonized steel, and the diameter ranges from about 12 – 18 inches (32 – 46cms.).

The single handled wok may appear to be unsteady and slightly tipped to one side, but in fact it is quite safe and much easier to handle particularly for quick stir-frying, since it offers you plenty of leverage of tilting and tossing. The disadvantages of using a double handled wok is that you need strong wrist and oven gloves to lift it, as the metal handles get very hot even if they are reinforced with heat resistant plastic or wood.

A dome shaped lid would be another useful item for certain braising and steaming dishes. Wok lids are usually made of light metal such as aluminum, with a wooden or plastic knob on top as a handle. The dome shape allows the cooking of a whole chicken or duck in a wok and the natural curve will guide the condensation inside the lid, sliding down along the edge, rather than dropping down directly onto the food that is being cooked.

STIRRER:

Some wok sets often consist of a pair of stirrers in the shape of a ladle and a spatula, made of iron and stainless steel, both have a long handle with wooden tip. Of the two, the ladle or scooper is more versatile. It is an indispensable utensil in the professional kitchen, since it is used for adding ingredients and seasonings to the wok, besides being a stirrer and scooper during cooking as well as transferring food from the wok to serving dish or bowl. It is also a measure for the cook, as the standard ladle will hold 6 fl oz. (180 ml or 2/3 cup) liquid, slightly smaller than the rice bowl.

The spatula or shovel has a rounded end to match the contours of the wok, therefore it can be very useful for scraping and lifting fried food from the bottom of the wok such as when cooking a whole fish etc. Sometimes it is used in conjunction with the ladle for stir-frying, rather like when you are mixing and tossing a salad with a pair of spoon and fork.

One common factor regarding the wooden tip attached to the end of the handles, it often becomes loose and falls off in your hand during cooking; so make sure it is nailed or glued firmly in place. You may have to do this yourself, since very seldom will you find this to be done by a manufacturer.

HOW TO SEASON AND CLEAN AN IRON OR STEEL WOK :

A new wok is either coated with machine oil or a film of wax to keep it from rusting. This coating has to be removed and a anew coat of seasoning must be applied to the surface after the cleaning and be maintained throughout its life in order to keep the wok from rusting as well as preventing food being stuck to the bottom.

If the new wok is covered with only grease, then just wash in warm soapy water with a stiff brush until clean; but if the wok is coated with was, you will have to remove it by burning it over hot stove first and then clean it in warm, soapy water with a stiff brush and rinse well.

After that, place the clean and smooth wok over a moderate heat to dry, wipe the surface with a pad of kitchen paper soaked in cooking oil until clean. The wok is now seasoned and ready for use.

After each use, wash the wok under hot or cold water, never use any detergents as that will remove seasoning and cause food to stick to the surface the next time you cook. Should any food get stuck in the wok, scrape it off with a stiff brush or nylon scourer without soap. Rinse and dry the wok thoroughly over low heat; rub some more oil over the surface if it is not to be used again soon, otherwise the wok might go rust.

After you have cooked with a new wok some 8 – 10 times, and if you never have to clean it with detergent or metal abrasives then your wok will acquire a beautiful, glossy finish like a well-seasoned omelet pan. This is the ‘PATINA’ much treasured by Chinese chefs as the wok flavor.

INITIAL PREPARATION:

Cutting Techniques  –

The cutting of various ingredients into different sizes, thickness and shapes is an important element in Chinese cuisine. As mentioned earlier, the Chinese always cut their food into small neat pieces before cooking, partly because of fuel conservation; small pieces of food can be cooked quickly before the sticks of firewood burn out! And partly because, small pieces of food are easier to be served and eaten with chopsticks, since knives and carvers have never been used on Chinese tables. The fact that small pieces of food only require a short cooking time, thus retain much of the natural flavors and nutritious value is an added bonus in Chinese cooking, which must be regarded as an incidental discovery.

So the Chinese started cutting their food into small pieces before cooking for practical reasons, but as their cuisine developed into a fine art, naturally too the cutting too became more and more sophisticated. We must have found out the close relationship between cooking and cutting, so instead of cutting everything into small bits and pieces indiscriminately, we gradually worked out the following basic rules that govern cutting of food.

1. The size and shape of the cut ingredient must first of all be suitable for the    particular method of cooking. For instance, the ingredients for quick stir-frying should be cut into small, thin slices or shreds, never large thick chunks.

2. Learn and understand the character of the ingredients, their textures and the color changes – an important factor that helps you to choose the appropriate cutting and cooking method. Tender ingredients can be cut thicken than tougher ones that require more cooking time and most meats change color when cooked (chicken and pork become paler, while beef and lamb tend to become darker after they are cooked)

3. The ingredients must be cut into pieces of uniform shape, size and thickness – this is not only to create aesthetic harmony but because each piece must be cooked evenly, larger pieces will be undercooked and smaller ones overcooked.

4. Whenever possible, different ingredients for the same dish should be cut into pieces of the same shape a and size, slices are matched with slices, shreds with shreds, cubes with cubes, chunks with chunks and so on.

There are certain shapes, which are standard in Chinese cooking. Slice, Strip, Shred, Chunk, Piece, Dice, Cube, Grain and Mince. The actual shape is decided by the character of the ingredient and the cooking method required.

SLICE: Are thin, flat pieces of the ingredient. Cut them by first cutting the ingredient into sections as required by the dimension of the slice, and then slice the sections according to the desired thickness. The required size is often decided by the cooking method.

STRIP, SHRED: Strips and shreds are similar – one is thicker, other is thinner. First cut the ingredient into slices, then pile them one on top of each other like a pack of playing cards and cut them into strips or shreds as desired.

CHUNK, PIECE: There are many kinds of chunks and pieces: diamond, hexagonal, rectangular or wedge shaped. Cut them by first cutting the ingredient into broad strips or sections, and then into smaller pieces as required.

DICE, CUBE: Diced cubes and small cubes are pieces cut from strips.

GRAIN, MINCE: Grains are finely chopped ingredient, and are cut from shreds. Mince is even finer and is cut by much chopping and pressings with the flat of the blade.

In addition to these, there are FLOWER – CUTTING and SCORING for thick pieces such as kidney, squid and fish in order to allow more heat and sauce penetration.

INITIAL PREPARATION AND COOKING TECHNIQUE

A Chinese dish is usually made up of more than one ingredient because when a single item is served on its own, it lacks contrast, therefore there is no harmony. Some cooks like to mix contrasting flavours and unrelated textures; others prefer the matching of similar tastes and colors. Some wish the flavor of each ingredient to be preserved, others believe in the infusion of flavours.

To start with, you first choose the ‘main’ ingredient, then decide which type or types of ‘supplementary’ ingredients will go best with it, bearing in mind the difference of color, flavor and texture and so on. For instance, if the main ingredient is chicken breast, which is white in color and tender in texture, then one would choose as a supplementary ingredient something crisp like celery, which is also pale in color, or one would perhaps choose something more colorful like green or red peppers, with crisp or something soft like mushrooms.

By combining different supplementary ingredients with the main one, and by the addition of various seasonings, it is possible to produce almost an endless variety of dishes without resort to unusual and exotic items. That is why a Chinese cook abroad can always produce a Chinese meal, even using only local ingredients. For the ‘ Chineseness’ of the food depends entirely on how it is prepared and cooked, not what ingredient is used.

As mentioned earlier, the cutting of variety ingredients into different sizes, thickness and shapes is an important element in Chinese cuisine.  The Chinese practice of cutting their food into small, neat pieces before cooking, partly because of fuel conservation and partly because small pieces of food are easier to be served and eaten with chopsticks, small pieces of food are easier to be served and eaten with chopsticks, since knives and carvers have not been used on Chinese tables since ancient times.  Of course small pieces of food require only a short cooking time, thus retain much of the natural flavors and nutritional value.

The size and shape of the cut ingredient must, first of all, be suitable for the particular method of cooking.  For instance, ingredients for quick stir-frying should be cut into small, thin slices or shreds, never large, thick chunks.  Learn and understand the character of the ingredients, their texture and their color changes – an important factor that helps you to choose the appropriate cutting and cooking method.  Tender ingredients can be cut thicker than tougher ones that require more cooking time, and most meats change color when cooked.  Chicken and pork become paler while beef and lamb tend to go darker after being cooked.

After cooking, the next step in the preparation of food (usually applies to ingredients such as meats, poultry and fish, not to vegetables) before actual cooking is marinating.  The basic method is to marinate the white meats and fish in salt, egg white and cornflour, in order to preserve the natural delicate texture of the food when cooked in hot oil.  For red meats the basic marinade usually consists of salt, sugar, soya sauce, rice wine and cornflour, the purpose of this marinating is to tenderize and enhance the flavors of the meat.

When it comes to the actual cooking, the two most important factors are degree of heat and duration of cooking.  These two factors are so closely related to each other that it is very difficult to give a precise cooking time in most recipes, since much depends on the size and condition of the ingredients, and above all, on the type of the stove and cooking utensils used.

All in all, there are well over 50 different distinct methods of cooking in Chinese Cooking.  They fall roughly into the following categories:

 

WATER COOKING :  Boiling, poaching and simmering.

OIL COOKING       :  Deep-frying, Shallow frying, stir-frying and    braising.

FIRE COOKING    :    Roasting, baking and barbecuing.

STEAM COOKING :  Steaming.

COOKING METHODS

The Chinese divide the temperature of heat into ‘Military’ (high or fierce and medium) and ‘civil’ (low or gentle and weak).  And proper control of temperature and cooking time is key to success or failure.

High or fierce heat is usually used for quick cooking for and tender foods.  Different kinds of frying, steaming, instant boiling etc., call for a high heat.

Medium or moderate heat can be used for quick braising, steaming and boiling.

Low or gentle heat is used for slow cooking allowing the flavours to penetrate through all the ingredients such as in roasting and simmering.

Weak heat is used for long cooking, turning hard ingredients soft.  It is used for simmering, braising and stewing.

Here are 25 commonly used methods in Chinese cooking.  One dish may require one, two or three methods; each will produce a different effect.

• Ø CHAUN                   Quick or rapid boiling.  This simple cooking method is often used for making soups.  Bring the water or stock, boil over high heat, add the ingredients and seasonings, and serve as soon as the soup re-boils.  No thickening agent added and the vegetables will be crisp and fresh.

• Ø SHAU             Instant boiling or rinsing.  Thinly sliced ingredients are dipped into boiling water for a second or two, occasionally drinking it as if rinsing, then serve with a sauce.  This cooking method keeps the ingredients fresh and tender.

• Ø AO                   Stewing or braising.  Flavour a little hot oil with spring onions and ginger-root, and then stir-fry the ingredients for a short time.  Now add the stock or water and seasonings.  Simmer over a low heat.  The food should be soft and tender.

• Ø HUI                 Braising or Assembling. A method of cooking a dish that consists of several different ingredients. Stir-fry the ingredients first, add stock or water and seasonings, boil over high heat for a short while, then thicken the gravy before serving.  Alternately, prepare the gravy first then add the partly cooked ingredients (deep fried or steamed) cook over low heat, thicken the gravy and serve.

• Ø BAN                Mixing salads.  This method does not actually involve cooking, but simply calls for cutting the raw or cooking ingredients and dressing it with seasonings.

• Ø QIAND           Hot salads.  Here the raw ingredients are parboiled or blanched first, then dressed with seasonings.

The difference between cold salad and hot salad dressing is as follows –

Cold Salad Dressing  –    Soya sauce, vinegar and sesame seed oil.

Hot Salad Dressing – Ginger shreds, sichuan peppercorn, salt, sugar and sesame seed oil.

• Ø YAN                Pickling. Pickle the food with salt and sugar or with salt and wine.  Dishes prepared this way have a subtle fragrance and are crisp.

• Ø JIAN              Shallow frying.  A flat-bottomed pan is used, a little oil and medium or low heat.  Seasonings are added when food is half done.  The pan should be turned from time to time during cooking so that the heat is evenly distributed.

• Ø TA                            Pan-frying.  The ingredients are coated with batter, fried in a small amount of oil on both sides over a low heat until done.  The ingredients may be deep-fried first, and then finished off by pan-frying.  Seasonings and sauce are added towards the end of cooking.

• Ø TIE-PAN                 Sticking frying.  This is basically a form of shallow frying, but only one side is fried, the food is not turned over, so that one side is golden brown and the other side is soft and tender.

• Ø ZHA                Deep frying.  Food is fried in a large quantity of oil over a high or medium heat.  There are different variations of deep-frying.

1. Neat deep-frying:    The raw ingredients are not coated with batter or flour.
2. Dry deep-frying: Raw ingredients are coated with dry flour or breadcrumbs.
3. Soft deep-frying: Raw ingredients are coated with batter, first and then deep-fried for crispiness.

• Ø LIU                 Sauté.  This is a special technique, which involves two stages of cooking.  First deep-fry, quick or rapid boil steam, or boil the ingredients until done, then mix with seasonings to make a sauce.  Next either.

1. Dark brown sauté:   Pour the sauce over the cooked foods and serve.
2. Slippery sauté:      Stir-fry the raw ingredients and pour the sauce over half way through cooking, stirring constantly until done.
3. Soft sauté:              Steam or boil the ingredients and then, while they are still hot, add a thin and delicate sauce.

• Ø CHAO            Stir frying.  Stir-fry the ingredients in a little hot oil over a very high heat.  This method is widely used and has many variations:

1. Pure stir-frying:     The raw ingredients are not marinated nor coated with a batter, they are just stir-fried in hot oil and seasonings are added towards the end of cooking.  Most vegetables are cooked in this way.
2. Braising stir-frying:    The main and supplementary ingredients are cooked in this way, separately at first and then brought together with the addition of seasoning and stock or a thickening agent (usually of cornflour mixed with water), and braised very quickly over high heat.
3. Twice cooked stir-frying:   One ingredient has been previously cooked and is here cut into smaller pieces and stir fried with other ingredients and seasonings.

• Ø BAO                            Rapid stir-frying.  Another form of stir-frying, the ingredient or ingredients have been deep-fried or rapid boiled first, they are then quickly stir-fried over very high heat for a short period of time.  Variations in this method include rapid stir-frying in oil, rapid stir-frying in bean sauce and rapid stir-frying with spring onions.

• Ø PENG                Quick braising.  This is one of the important cooking techniques and is always used with deep-frying.  The ingredients are cut into small pieces and deep fried first, then taken out of the oil and a sauce is added.  While the sauce is hot stir-fry over high heat and remove the wok from heat and combine stirring a few more time before serving.

• Ø DUN                            Slow cooking.  There are two kinds of slow cooking in water.  Slow cooking in water is a from of stewing, slow cooking out of water involves a double boiling technique.  When the pot that contains the food is immersed in a large pot of boiling water.

• Ø MEN                           Slow braising.  The food must be fried first (light browned) then all the ingredients (seasonings etc) are in a tightly covered pot and simmered over a very low heat slowly like a casserole.

• Ø LU                     Soya stewing.  A soya gravy is made first, the ingredients are stewed in this gravy over a low heat.

• Ø JIANG              A soya braising.  The difference between soya stewing and soya braising is that the ingredients are marinated first in the sauce in which it is cooked, with additional stock and water.  The sauce is reduced or thickened and is served with the dish.

 

• Ø SHAO                Red cooking.  In this widely used method of cooking the meat is cut into small chunks, then fried, deep fried, par boiled or steamed until half done.  Seasonings (Soya sauce, wine, ginger and sugar etc.) stock or water are then added to it, the whole thing is brought to a boil and simmered until done.

• Ø PA                     Braising in sauce.  In this method, a little oil is first flavored with spring onions and/or ginger-root, the ingredients are then placed in the wok / pot and simmered until done.

• Ø ZHU                  Boiling.  Boil the ingredients directly in water over low heat.

• Ø ZHENG             Steaming.  Another widely used method in China not only for cooking but also for treating raw ingredients before cooking by other methods, or to keep food war after they have been cooked.

• Ø KAO                           Roasting.  The ingredients area first marinated or treated then either cooked in an oven or over an open fire like barbequing.

• Ø SHUN:               Smoking.  Cooking with heat and smoke from burning materials such as sawdust, tea leaves, cypress branches, bamboo leaves or granulated sugar.

Learn these methods carefully and practice with different ingredients for each method, bear in mind that certain food may or may not be suitable for a particular cooking method.

Most important point to remember is cooking time.  Even a slight variation in time or temperature will lead to different results.  So you should use your own eyes, nose and ears while cooking.  Once you have learnt to control the temperature and cooking time, you should be able to judge the precise moment when a dish a done.

BLENDING OF FLAVOURS AND SEASONINGS

A dish is made up of one or more ingredients.  The ingredients usually divided between the ‘main’ ingredient and the ‘supplementary’ ingredient or ingredients. The main ingredient is the major ingredient used for the dish, and the supplementary ingredients serve as contrast to it as well blend the flavours for the dish.

In selecting the ingredients for a dish or a course of dishes attention should be paid to –

1. Quantity:  The main ingredients – color, aroma, flavor or shape should be maintained.  If there is no marked distinction between the main and supplementary ingredients, then equal proportions should be used.

1. Flavour:  The main ingredients flavor should dominate the dish; the supplementary ingredients should be lighter in flavor.  If the main ingredient itself is light in flavor, then heavily seasoned supplementary ingredients will complement the main one.

1. Texture:  The texture of the various ingredients can be similar, or in contrast , which offers a more interesting result.  Attention should be paid to the temperature of heat and duration of cooking time for each individual item, so that the ingredient retains its proper texture.

1. Shape:  Affects the appearance of the dish and the cooking itself.  Usually the shape of the main ingredient is the most prominent.  And in selecting dishes for a complete meal, there should be a variety of shapes – slices, cubes, shreds etc., in order to avoid monotony.

1. Color:  Color will affect the presentation of the dish – and the flavor.  One color may be chosen for the dish and all the ingredients will then match.  Alternatively, different colors will often add to the variety in presentation value.

There are 5 basic flavors in Chinese Cuisine:

1. Salty – flavoring agents – salt, soy sauce, soyabean paste etc.
2. Sweet – sugar, honey, jam etc.
3. Sour – vinegar, plum sauce, tomato sauce etc.
4. Hot – chilli, chilli sauce, pepper, ginger, mustard etc
5. Bitter – almond, orange peel, herbs etc.

In addition, certain regional cuisines include 2 extra flavors.

6.  Aromatic – flavoring agents – wine, garlic, spring onions, sichwan, pepper, sesame seeds, sesame seed oil, spices etc.

7.  Delicious – This is a literary translation from the Chinese character XIAN, made up by joining a fish with a goat, produces the delicious flavor. Flavoring agents: Mono-sodium glutamate, oyster sauce, shrimp sauce, chicken and meat stock etc.

Out of these basic flavors. A Chinese cook can create several combination flavors:

Sweet and sour:    Salt, sugar, vinegar etc.

Sweet and salty:      Salt, sugar, soy sauce etc.

Hot and sour:         Chilli, chilli bean paste, vinegar etc.

Salty and hot:       Soy sauce, chilli sauce etc.

Aromatic and hot:            Chilli oil, curry powder, mustard etc.

Aromatic and salty:  Salt, sichwan pepper

The most famous and popular sweet and sour sauce has many regional variations, but there are only 2 basic styles:

1.       CANTONESE SWEET AND SOUR SAUCE

The Cantonese usually make their sweet and sour sauce in large quantity, which is used for different dishes, be it pork, chicken, fish or prawn.

INGREDIENTS

Vinegar                          800    ml

Sugar                             400    gms

Salt                                3        tbsp

Tomato puree                200    gms

Water                             1500  ml

METHOD

Dissolve the sugar in vinegar over medium heat, then add the rest of the ingredients, blend until smooth.

2.       PEKING SWEET AND SOUR SAUCE

The Peking style is used throughout the rest of China with only very slight variations according to regional taste – for instance, in Eastern China (Shanghai and Soudrow) more sugar would be used, while in Western China (Sichwan), more vinegar would be used.  Also the sauce is always made just for an individual dish, therefore adjustments could be made to suit a particular ingredient.

INGREDIENTS

Oil                                           2-3    tablespoons

Vinegar                                    2-3                      “

Sugar                                       3-3.5           “

Dark Soy sauce                       1-2              “

Cornflour mixed with water    1                 “

Stock / Water                          2-3              “

Finely chopped spring onions, ginger-root and garlic (1/2 tsp each)

METHOD

First heat the oil, then flavor the oil with spring onions, ginger and garlic, and stir until aromatic.  Add stock or water, soy sauce, sugar and vinegar, blend and bring to the boil.  Finally thicken the sauce with cornflour and water paste.

PRINCIPLES OF SEASONING

Marinate the raw ingredients with basic seasonings (salt, sugar, soy sauce, vinegar, wine, cornflour etc.) creates a basic flavor for, or defuses certain strong flavors in the ingredient.

Seasonings added to the ingredients during cooking enhance the flavor of food.

After cooking, supplementary seasoning added to the dish in the form of garnishes (sesame oil, spring onions, coriander etc.)  further enhance the appearance and flavor of the dish.  Also in certain cooking methods such as deep-frying, instant boiling, steaming or blanching etc., seasonings cannot be added during cooking, therefore seasonings in the form of dips or garnishes can make up for the flavor deficiency.

Balance:  You should know what is the correct flavor of the dishes, if it calls for several different spices or seasonings, make the leading flavor stand out.

 

The nature of the ingredients:  Fresh foods should not be seasoned too

highly, or their original delicacy will be lost.  Food that has a strong flavor should be highly seasoned in order to reduce or eliminate the strong flavor.

The seasons:  People’s tastes change with the seasons.  Generally they like light food during the hot season and heavier food in the colder and milder seasons.

BATTERS AND THICKENING AGENTS

Batters are used to coat ingredients before cooking. They help the food retain freshness, flavor and moisture. They will give the cooked food a crisp outside and a tender soft inside.  Batters help retain the natural nutrients in food that would otherwise be lost in the cooking process. Finally, batters help the food retain shape where they might have been broken up or shrunken during cooking.

The primary ingredients in batters include egg, cornflour wheat flour, baking powder and breads crumbs.

1.       Egg-white batter:  made of egg white, cornflour and salt.

2.       Egg and flour batter:  made of whole egg, cornflour or wheat flour and salt.

3.       Water and cornflour batter:  made of conflour and water.

4.       Baking powder batter: Made of baking powder, flour and water.

5.       Egg batter and flour dredge: The food is first coated with a thin layer of dry   cornflour, and then dipped in a batter before cooking.

6.       Egg batter and breadcrumbs dredge:  the food is first covered with batter and then rolled in breadcrumbs before deep-frying.

THICKENING   AGENTS

A thin paste made of corn flour and water, when added to food shortly before it is done, will thicken the gravy or sauce. It serves to:

1.       Bring the seasonings and the ingredients together to heighten the flavours.

2.       Make the surface of the cooked dish smooth and soft, and make the colors bright – in another word, it improves the appearance of the dish.

3.       Create a transparent coating around the food, keeping the heat

So that the dish doesn’t get cold too quickly.

4.       In some soup dishes, heavier ingredients tend to sink to the bottom, the thickening agents make the ingredients remain more evenly distributed in the soup.

There are two types of paste:  thick and thin.

Thick paste is further divided into 2 types: a thick coating paste when sticks to the ingredients, leaving no liquid in the dish, and a fluid paste which thickens the gravy in a dish.

Thin paste also falls into two categories:  glazing paste, which is added to the gravy left in the wok after the food is removed, this is then heated and poured over the food as a sauce and a creamy sauce, which thickens the gravy only slightly when poured into the dish.

THE   CHINESE   MENU

Serving Chinese food often puzzles most people in the West, particularly   because the order of different course served at Chinese meal bears no resemblance to the western convention of soup-fish-poultry-meat-cheese-desert sequence.

The Chinese cooking tradition makes for a greater harmony of living, an aspect of Chinese cuisine which has often been over looked: there is a great feeling of togetherness in the way the Chinese eat. They gather around a table and partake all the dishes, which are placed on the table in a communal style. Nobody is served just an individual portion in the western way. The chopsticks are used not only as eating implements but also to help others to a choice piece – especially from a particular dish this is usually an expression of respect and affection.

Due to the multi-course nature of the Chinese meal, eating and dinning have always been very much a family or communal event and Chinese food is best eaten this way, for only then can you enjoy a variety of dishes.  An informal Chinese dinner served at home is essentially a buffer-style affair, with more hot dishes than cold served on the table at the same time, to be shared by everyone. Only at formal dinner parties or banquets dishes are served singly, or in groups course by course, and the order in which different course or dishes are served depends more on the method of cooking, and the way the ingredients are prepared before cooking, rather than on the actual food itself.

A typical dinner menu for 10-12 people would consist of 8-10 dishes served in the following order:

First course:         3-4 cold starters or an assorted hors d’oeuvre dish.

Second course:    2-3 or 4 quick stir – fried dishes,  or deep fried or quick braised dishes    (which should always be ‘dry’ rather than full of gravy); the exact number  and variety of dishes are flexible  here, it all depends on the scale of the   occasion, or what was served before and to follow.

Main course:       1,2,or 3 (or even 4) ‘big’ dishes; these can be steamed, long- braised (red cooked) or roasted, but usually consisted of a whole chicken, duck, fish and joint of meat. Again the number and variety of dishes are dependents on the occasion.

Rice course:         Noodles and dumplings are often served instead of, or as well as rice at the end of a big meal.

Dessert:      Only served at formal banquets in China, soup is often served for lesser grand occasions. As a compromise, fresh fruit and Chinese Tea can always be served at the end of a big Chinese meal instead of pudding.

When it comes to planning the menu , just remember that, as a rule, allow one dish per person, but 2 dishes should be enough for 3-4 people, 3 dishes for 6-8 and so on. But  also remember the Chinese never serve an individual dish to each person, you all share the same dishes on the table . The only exception is for a light  snack when a dish of chow mein or a bowl of noodles or soup is given his or her own portion.

A Chinese meal is served absolutely ready-to-eat there is no last minute carving on the table, nor dishing out separate items such as meat, vegetables, gravy or sauce and with all their attendant condiments; there is no long prelude when you wait for everybody to be served before you start.  At a Chinese meal, as soon as the first dish or course of dishes is placed on the table, the host will raise his glass and say ‘gan bei’ (Cheers) or Bon Appetite.

CHINESE COOKERY FOR HEALTH

Chinese people generally look younger than their age, and very few have a weight problem.  This must be because Chinese food when done properly, often using simple and easy methods of preparation and cooking, retains its natural flavors as well as the nutritional value.

A nutritious substance is also known as nutrient, and all edible items consists of a number of nutrients, these include energy producing calories (proteins, fats and carbohydrates), dietary fiber, the essential fatty acids, the essential minerals including trace elements.

The human body needs food and drink as nourishment to sustain its growth and maintenance, but good health requires a well-balanced diet based on a variety of different food and drink, since the nutritional value in different foods vary enormously.  From the earliest days of their civilization, the Chinese have always been highly aware of, (one could even say, almost obsessed with the idea of) the close relationship between food and health.

The Chinese consider the human body and mind as a whole, they do not make so strong a distinction between the mental, the spiritual and the physical as do people of the western this school of thought clearly related to the ancient philosophy of yin-yang.

‘A healthy mind within a healthy body’.  Whereas the Confucianists were more concerned with the physical aspects of the food – appearance, flavor and texture, the Taoists, who were  primarily responsible for the development of hygienic and nutritional science of food, were concerned the ‘spiritual’ or life-giving attributes of various food: nourishment of body and happiness of life.

The main distinctive features in Chinese Cuisine is the emphasis on the harmonious blending of colors, aromas, flavors and textures both in one single dish and a course of dishes for a meal.  Consciously or unconsciously, a Chinese cook from a housewife to the professional chef all work to the yin-yang principles i.e. harmonious balance and contrast in conspicuous juxtapositions of different colors, aromas, flavors and texture by varying the ingredients, cutting-techniques, seasonings and cooking methods and so on.

Perhaps one of the best examples for the yin-yang principle in Chinese cuisine is in the way we blend different seasoning.  Complimentary pairs:  sugar (yin) and vinegar (yang), salt (yin) and sichwan pepper (yang), spring onion (yin) and root ginger (yang), soy sauce (yin) and rice wine (yang) and so on.

There is no set rules for the exciting yin-yang combinations, is all done by subtle intuition and the ‘feel’ of the process an experienced good knows by instinct that what does and does not go together just as a true gourmet will judge the success or failure of a dish purely on its visual appeal, if it doesn’t look right, then it won’t taste right.

The Chinese attitude to eating is further characterized by the ideas and beliefs that most foods are also medicines – the even riding idea is that the kind of food one eats is intimately relevant to one’s health.  Many foods are classified into those that possess the yin quality and those of the yang quality.  When the yin-yang forces in the body are not balanced, illness results, therefore, proper amounts to foods of one kind or the other may then be administered (i.e. cooked and clean) to counterbalance the disorder.

With health food and cooking for health in mind, a Chinese cook concentrates on three points:

A.      The selection of the raw materials:  This requires a deep understanding of the various ingredients to be used – what is their nutritional value, and whether there is sufficient balance in variety, are they fresh and in their prime conditions?  Above all they must be fresh in the case of seafood and vegetables.

B.      The cooking methods employed:  A significant quantity of vitamins is destroyed through prolonged cooking, therefore the various cooking methods can drastically alter the nutritional value in any given food.  The Chinese quick stir-frying, braising, steaming and rapid- boiling etc. are all cooking methods particularly favorable for nutritional preservations.

C.      How to make dishes delicious:  A good Chinese cook prides him/her self on being able to make a dish highly palatable without resorting to too much flavoring agents or seasoning.  At the back of the Chinese mind, there is a strong conviction that any food that is fresh should retain its natural flavor therefore is bound to be delicious to the palate and be nutritious as well.

To return to my earlier remarks about the Chinese regarding the human body and mind as a whole, I would like to quote a paragraph from the preface to ‘The Correct Guide to Food and Drink’ by Hu Sihui, the 14^th century Imperial Dietitian (literally ‘Food Doctor Official).

What determines human life is the mind which is the master body if the body is at ease and in harmony with the environment the mind will be able to deal with all changes in life.  Thus it is important to keep the body in good repair and maintenance, essence of which is to keep the golden mean, that is not too deficient in nutrition and not to indulge in excesses.  Use of 5 flavors (salty, sweet, sour, bitter, and piquant)  to the 5 vital organs.  If these are at peace, the vital fluid to us will flow smoothly, then our mind will find its equilibrium and the whole person will find himself in a supreme state of well being.

SUNIL KUMAR

SIHM ROHTAK

CHAPTER 33: THE COOKING OF PROVINCIAL FRANCE.

To many a lay person, French cooking means an elaborate and expensive way to complicate or at least masking foods with sauces. Unfortunately French cooking can also mean mediocre or poor or dishonest cooking served with pomp in pretentious restaurants everywhere, even in the city of Paris. There is of course another side of French cooking. What is called haute or grande cuisine may be modern mans nearest approach to pure bliss. However provincial cooking is sometimes quite different from haute (grande) cuisine. It simply means, the cooking that springs from regional areas called provinces. Grande cuisine owes a lot to true provincial cooking. Most of the great chefs came from villages in the provinces. They have learnt to adapt the cooking styles as well as the raw material from their regions to the kitchens of rich and famous. In true provincial cooking, there is no need for complexity. Food is cooked in its own juices and served right in the casseroles in which they are cooked.

In this handout we will deal with the provincial cooking of France. The historic provinces of France no longer exist as potential entities. Starting with the Bretagne (Brittany) in the northwest, there are eleven regions divided according to their culinary contribution to French cooking.

BRETAGNE (Brittany) takes its food and cooking simply. The sea supplies an abundance of fish and excellent Belon oysters are found along the coast. Bretagne can also be credited with inventing the French version of the pancake – the delicate crepe.

NORMANDIE – can boast of richest milk, cream and butter in all of France, Norman cream is an important ingredient in some of the best French dishes, and much of the milk goes into the world famous Camembert cheese. The meat from the region is also excellent, especially the sheep and lamb pastured in the salt marshes along the coast. Apples grow abundantly, most of them going into cider, the favorite accompaniment to Norman meals, or in the fiery brandy called calvados.

 

CHAMPAGNE – makes one supreme contribution to French cuisine – the famous sparkling wine, named after the province. Although its repertoire of food is limited, the region produces excellent ham and sausages and neighboring Flanders has invented many different ways to serve the herrings.

TOURAINE – is often called ‘the garden of France’. Its recipes can be as delicate as Trout in Aspic or as robust as Roast Pork with Prunes. The Loire Valley that cuts through the province is ‘ Chateaux Country’ where French kings relaxed in the splendor of their country estates while their chefs made most of the regions fine fruits and vegetables.

ILE DE FRANCE – The fertile land surrounding Paris is the birthplace of the classic cooking style known as Le Grande Cuisine. It was here, in the cavernous kitchens of kings and lords that French cooking became a high art. Cooks competed with one another to invent even more elaborate dishes. The cooking of Ile de France lacks a striking regional personality, but it draws on the culinary genius of all the provinces.

ALSACE AND LORRAINE – have often come under German domination and this is reflected in their cooking. Alsatian food with its sausages and sauerkraut has a Germanic heritage. The food of Lorraine is slightly more French in character. The most famous dish is the Quiche Lorraine. The province is also known for its excellent potee, a cabbage soup with salted pork and vegetables. The fruity Rhine wine of Alsace rival those of Germany.

BOURGOGNE (Burgundy) is justly well known throughout the world for its wines, and these wines, white and red, play a dominant role in Burgundian cooking. Red burgundy is a key ingredient in Boeuf Bourguignon the king of beef stews and also in most regional dishes. An annual gastronomic fair held in Dijon, the region’s principal city and the ‘mustard capital’ draws gourmets from all over the world.

BORDEAUX and the country around it are best known for their wine, which rank with the ones from Burgundy as the best of French produce. Bordeaux cooks have developed a highly specialized cuisine to go with their great wines. Also in this region are cognac (the brandy capital) and Perigueux; whose truffles go into the making of Pate de foie gras the most extravagant delicacy of French table.

FRANCHE – COMTE along with its neighboring provinces of Savoie and Dauphine is mostly mountain country and the food is as robust as the climate. Perhaps the greatest contribution of this region to the national cuisine is the Bresse Chicken, a small bird whose flesh is so delicate that even the inventive French prefer it simply roasted without any spices or sauces to obscure its flavor. The cows of this region produce more milk than its inhabitants can consume and much of the surplus is used to make cheese. The French version of Swiss Gruyere the Comte comes from this region.

LANGUEDOC, FOIX AND ROUSSILLON – Languedoc was once an outpost of the Roman Empire and it has retained traces of Roman influence in the cuisine. Especially popular here are the old Roman ‘Cassoulets’ which are rich concoctions of goose or duck, pork or mutton plus sausage and white beans. To the west, along the Pyrenees is Foix and Roussillon, the Spanish culinary influence prevails, particularly in the omlettes prepared with green peppers, ham and tomato.

PROVENCE – has been a favorite vacation center since Roman times. Like some other regions of north Mediterranean, it bases its cooking on garlic, olive oil and tomatoes. Bouillabaisse, the famed fish stew/Soup comes from the Marseille waterfront. In general, the cuisine of Provence is much more highly flavored than the rest of France.

THE BREADS OF FRANCE

It is enough to say that bread is to the Frenchman, what rice is to the Chinese and potatoes to the German. It is also safe to say that most normal Frenchmen would rather starve than substitute their daily supply of bread. The French are extremely demanding about what is literally their staff of life. It must be fresh, baked not too long before the time it has to be eaten. Under ideal circumstances, some people like their loaves very brown and crusty and some like them comparatively pale, but still capable of making razor sharp crumbs when broken. The loaf must be of a certain shape, depending on the conditioned wishes of the family! Although neighborhood bakeries usually manage to satisfy their customers, some Frenchmen will go clear across town to get bread that is perhaps centimeters wider or longer than the ones more readily available. Bread is usually eaten at all three meals of the day –  always in the morning, with hot milk, chocolate or coffee; always at noon with a bowl of a hearty soup and often at night with the main meal. Although very rarely is any bread leftover (a French housewife has a special intuition which tells her the exact consumption of her family!!) surplus quantities go into the making of stuffing and puddings or made into breadcrumbs. Very rarely will it be eaten as bread the next day.

By far the most popular kind of bread in France is the Baguette, a golden brown, rod shaped loaf, 2 feet long. Next comes the Petit Parisienwhich is shorter and fatter than the Baquette. There are whole grain breads like the one made of black rye Courte d’ Auvergne.The French though disdainful of foreign cooking are quick to recognize and adopt good bread. The Natte Ordinaireand Natte aux Cumins are both Austrian in origin whereas the Pain Espagnol as the name suggests comes from Spain. The croissant, brioche and Vienna rolls are all special treats and are popularly known as breakfast rolls.

SOUPS

In a great number of provincial families, the main meal at noon is soupless. The soup is served for supper, with perhaps a light egg dish to follow. In simple French fare, the soup is kept simple, since it is eaten at the end of the day. However a complex dish such as Bouillabaisse is seldom served at night. In the same category of main dish soups are cotriade (a pungent Breton Bouillabaisse), bourride (a garlicky fish stew) and soupe au pistou (a spicy vegetable soup). Each of these has a complimentary sauce. Rouille (a peppery concoction) suited for Bouillabaisse and cotirade, aioli for bourride while the soupe au Pistou gets its name from Pistou – a blend of garlic, herbs, tomato paste and cheese, which is added to the soup.

However, generally, soups are based more on vegetables. These soups are considered healthy or potages de sante. There is a popular saying in France ‘soups’ enough if there’s enough soup.

FISH 

 

Most non – Frenchmen are amazed by the eating habits of the French. A Frenchman will look for and then prepare and eat with enjoyment food, which to us may seem outlandish. A good example of this is snails. Snails are usually prepared in the Burgundian style, served in their shells with strong flavoured garlic butter. Another creature that the French have raised to a lordly place on the table is the frog; frogs’ legs (cuisses de grenouilles) are prepared and eaten in a way similar to chicken legs. Plainly, anything that lives is edible – in France at least. Another delicacy in France is the ‘eel’ – the delicate flesh of which is prepared in many various forms including smoked, roasted, fried, boiled and broiled. Oysters are usually eaten raw but clams, scallops and mussels find their way into delicious hors d’oeuvre or fish dishes on a dinner menu. Depending on where they are caught, these shellfish may be prepared with butter, cream and egg yolk in the north or with olive oil, tomato and garlic in the south. Most of the supply of fish in France comes from the southern part of Marseille. It has one of the most colourful marketplaces where on inconceivable amount of fish is available and sold. The catch could include eels, mullet, sardines, shrimp, clams, inkfish, mussels, oysters, sea urchins bass, red snapper, trout, cod, rockfish, whitefish and mackerels.

POULTRY AND MEAT

 

France is known for its variety of poultry meats. Every housewife is well versed in the preparation of various fricassees, stews and blanquettes. Best of all, perhaps are the chickens, simply roasted with good butter, flavoured with tarragon or lemon juice. They are served tender and succulent with a slightly crackly skin. This method can be used for any domesticated fowl. A duck or goose with their higher fat content, are much richer. Wild birds, because of their diet and exercise are tougher, dryer but more flavoursome. They must be cooked by slow simmering rather than roasting. Tender squabs and older pigeons are also eaten. Cockerels, Leghorns and Hens are stewed or braised and used in making of that famous dish Coq au Vin. Turkeys, which are becoming increasingly popular in France, are best treated like chickens, depending on their age.

When William the Norman conquered England in 1066, he brought much more than armed law to the land. The Normans ate their meals in courses, often to music and they drank wine and made cooked dishes of their meats instead of tearing them from the bones, half raw. To native Britans, these table manners seemed hilariously dainty at first but gradually such customs were accepted as part of everyday life. Thus it was the French who taught the English the art of gracious living.

Although in most parts of the western world a joint of Beef is the symbol of a robust meal, in France, it is more likely to be lamb, veal or pork, roasted simply to bring out its best flavour. If a good piece of beef is to be served, it is generally browned first and then braised or stewed in its own juices along with a few vegetables. Lamb most often than not, is served pink in France and leg of baby lamb is one of the favourite dishes of the French family. In Brittany lamb is braised and then served with white beans. The French version of the casoulet is a mixture of beans (dried) and meat can vary according to family tastes and availability of materials. But whatever is put into it, simple or complex, it is a sturdy, hearty dish.

Besides these dishes, the French are also very fond of offals or innards as they are more popularly known as. In France, the innards are treated as respectfully as any other part of the carcass. Tripe, brain, liver, kidney, tongue are all deliciously prepared and are among the favourites of the local French population.

CHEESE

 

Cheese in many cooked or heated forms can be used in any part of a well-planned meal to add flavour consistency and interest! It can be found in omlettes, soufflés and tarts to start a dinner or to be the main course of a lighter lunch or supper. It can form an essential part of many sauces, or it can be used to variate colour, and flavour in dishes. But to serve cheese as such is unthinkable in France until the end of the meal. Then is the time to finish the last few bites of bread. It is a near truth that cheese is never eaten without bread, but there are expectations. Probably the best example is “coeur a la crème” a white creamed cheese served with strawberries.

Cheese comes in a wider variety of tastes, shapes and textures in France than anywhere else in the world. However, this leadership is more than numerical – the quality is of international repute. Camembert is one of the most popular of all French cheese. Its rind is light yellow – orange with a fine white powdery dust, on the inside, it should be light pale yellow with a soft creamy texture. Brie is next to Camembert in its popularity. It has a soft, satin like texture. Another cheese from the Brie-Camembert family is Coulommiers less mellow than Brie and tastes like Camembert. Roquefort is a salty tangy cheese with green-blue flecks. Another popular blue-veined cheese is Bleu deBresse. Cantal is similar to cheddar, a semi hard smooth light lemon coloured cheese. Saint Paulin and Port Salut are similar cheeses, semi-hard, mild with a smooth buttery like texture. Reblochon, though in appearance, akin to Camembert is a much firmer cheese and in taste is somewhat like both Beaumont and Le Dauphinois. Pont-L’Eveque is a square shaped cheese with a soft and pale yellow interior. Fromage au marc de Raisin also called La Grappe is a pale sweet, pasty cheese that is rolled in a crust of grape pulp (marc). Comte is the French version of Swiss Gruyere (complete with holes). Saint-Maure, Valencay and Saint-Marcellin are all goat milk cheeses generally eaten while still fresh and produced in small quantities. Mimolette resembles Dutch Edam but has a much tangier flavour while Murister is a strong flavoured, semi-soft, pungent cheese, Boursin and Belletoile are rich, fresh cheeses eaten by themselves with a little powdered sugar sprinkled over. All cheeses are best eaten at room temperature, removed from the refrigerator 2-3 hours before service. Although generally eaten with fruit and bread as the dessert at the end of a meal, they are equally well suited for an hors d’oeuvre or a midday snack.

DESSERTS   

 

Most good French pastrymen have their own specialities and pride themselves on their meringues and pates brisees. However, considerably the number of dessert tricks French cooks seem to have up their sleeves, it is surprising that their meals so seldom feature desserts. There are two types of basic pastry dough used in France in countless ways – the pate brisee, which is the same dough used for quiches and tarts that are eaten as hors d’oeuvres and main dishes, but sweetened for desserts and then there is the pate chou or a choux pastry. The simple sponge cake used as a base for many other confections is called a Bisquit (which literally means cooked twice), vanilla or chocolate flavoured not more than an inch and a half high. It can be filled with crème anglaise and then perhaps iced. It can also be cut into small squares for petit fours. It does not contain any baking powder and its lightness depends on the mixing of beaten egg whites into the batter. A crème anglaise is a standard in any French housewives repertory. It can be thin, to pour over fresh or poached fruits, somewhat thicker to half fill a piecrust and thicker still to spread between two layers of sponge. The soufflé is one of the most popular desserts normally kept plain and simple or perhaps flavoured with a liqueur such as Grande Mariner or grated lemon or orange rind. Crème caramel, Paris Brest, Profiteroles, Gateau St.Honore and the Diplomate are all traditional French favourites.

SUNIL KUMAR

SIHM ROHTAK

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CHAPTER 34: THE COOKING OF ITALY

It would probably occur to very few people to regard Italian cooking as the source of every other western cuisine. Nevertheless, that is precisely what it is. The cooking of the Italian peninsula was the first fully developed cuisine in Europe. Its originators, the ancient Romans found inspiration in Asia Minor and Greece, besides drawing on many resources and ingredients that were home grown. Combining all these, it was possible for the Italians to teach the French the art of good cooking and.…… eating!. In fact the Larousse Gastronomique, the bible of French cooking goes on record to state `Italian cooking can be considered a veritable mother cuisine’.

 

It was in 1533 that Catherine de Medici journeyed from Florence to Paris for her marriage to Henry II. Both Catherine and her cousin Marie di Medici who later became queen of Henry IV in 1600, brought teams of expert cooks to France with them. These culinary aristocrats possessed and delivered to France the most sophisticated cookery. They knew the art of modern pastry making as well as desserts, ice cream and cakes. Medici cooks also prepared for the first time outside Italy, exotic vegetables such as asparagus and artichokes as well as broccoli and the tiny peas that the French took as their own and which the world now knows as petits pois.

The `mother cuisine’ of Italy also assimilated many products of the `new’ world. It is hard to think of Italian cuisine without the tomato, but till 1554, no European had even set eyes on it. It was imported into Italy from Mexico where it was known as Pomo d’oro (golden apples). The pimento or red pepper, so important in Italian cooking today was also a find of the conquests. So was the potato, sent back to Europe in1540. Italy was the first to exploit corn, a grain used in the making of polenta. Turkey was brought back from America. By the end of the 16^th Century, the Italian list of food resources was complete and Italy’s cooking techniques and eating habits had crystallized into the form we know today.

 

THE MODERN CUISINE

To many a non-Italian, the cooking of Italy means pasta, pasta and more pasta. Even within this category, there is an astonishing variety. Actually, Italian fare can be lively and interesting. It ranges from rich and hearty soups through a dazzling antipasti, meat, fish and vegetable dishes to a profusion of cheeses, cakes and ice creams.

Far from being identical though, the cooking of modern Italy varies from the North to the South. On the basis of the styles of cooking, the whole country can be divided into two separate territories: the north and the south. The North is fertile, populous, industrialized and affluent. The South is parched, dry, sparsely inhabited, historically poor and mainly agricultural. As a consequence, the north cooks in butter, whereas the south cooks in olive oil (its cheaper to grow an olive tree than to maintain a cow!!). Flat, stuffed pastas made with egg are preferred in the North, while in the South, dry tubular pastas are common.

PASTA

No doubt, most non-Italians if asked to name pastas would come up with spaghetti and macaroni and perhaps ravioli and cannelloni. These are not many from a list which includes:

Agnolotti, amorini, bucatini, caneloni, capellini, capaletti, cavatoni, conchiglie, ditali, ditalini, farfale, farfalette, fedelini, fettucca, fettucelle, fettucine, fritelle, fussili, lasagne, linguine di passero, lumache, macheroni, mafalde, malfati, manicotti, margherite,maruzelle, mezani,moscaccioli, papardelle,passatelli, pastine, penne, pennoni, perciatelli, riceiolini, rigati, rigatoni, spaghetti, spaghetini, spiedini, stelline, stivaletti,tagliarini, tagliatelli, taglio, tagliolini,tonarelli, tonnellini, tortelli, tortelini, torteloni, trenette, tripolini, tubettini, tufoli, and ziti. Phew!!!  This list reveals almost as much of the Italian language as it does the varieties of pastas. Most names describe the shape, origin or the filling it contains. At times they are in local dialects and at times even nicknames are used as description. Some of those which are transalatable include agnolotti (little lambs), amorini (little cupids), canneloni (big pipes), conchiglie (conch shells), farfalle(butterflies), fusilli (spindles), lingue de passero (sparrows tongues), riceiolini (little curls), stivaletti (little boots) and vermicelli (little worms) .

Pastas can be cooked in a variety of ways including boiling, baking and frying. Besides the above exhaustive list, there is another doughy variety of pasta called gnoochi. These are small dumplings made of flour, potato or semolina or at times a mixture of these. There are also a whole range of sauces that go with pastas. The basic ones include Besciamella (white), Ragu Bolognese (red meat sauce) and Pesto (green). There are derivatives of these sauces like arabiata, al fredo and saffron.

After pasta, the sea is Italy’s most important source of food. Being a narrow country, every Italian province has a coastline of its own. No region is very far away from the sea and in the North, there are an abundance of lakes which provide fresh water fish. Italy is bounded by the Adriatic, the Ionian, the Ligurian, the Mediterranean and the Tyrrhenian seas which yield millions of tons of fish every year. The catch includes varieties such as red mullet, bass, sole, anchovy, sardines, mackeral, tuna, eel and crustraceans such as oysters, clams, crayfish, mussels, shrimp and the famous scampi. Squid, cuttlefish and octopus are other varieties, not very popular outside Italy!

While pasta and fish may be the staple diet of most Italians, the greater glories of Italian cuisine lies in its fruit and vegetables. The high quality of fruits and vegetables is attributed to a variety of reasons: the sea mists that carry salts and other minerals across the land, the use of natural rather than artificial fertilizers, the vagaries of the soil and climate and of course the know how and fine Italian hand! The vast repertory of herbs has also contributed to the fineness of Italian food. No Italian kitchen is without fresh or dried bunches of parsley, oregano, rosemary, wild marjoram, sweet basil, sage, tarragon, bay leaves, mint, fennel seeds and juniper berries to mention but a few. Spices such as cloves and coriander; flavorings such as saffron, garlic, shallots, lemon juice, vinegar, olives and celery form a wide spectrum of enhancers to choose from. In this list the olive has a special place. Some of the best olive oil comes from Italy. Lucca in Tuscany and Sasaria in Sardania produce the best extra virgin olive oil.

Italy is also Europe’s largest producer of rice and its per acre production is rarely matched anywhere in the world! ARBORIO is a top quality rice used in the preparation of Risotto. This comes from the Piedmont region which also produces some of the finest quality of white truffles.

Although Italians are not ordinarily great meat eaters, it is not true that Italy doesn’t have good meat. Italian veal, pork and even beef are very good. However, moist Italians prefer veal and chicken. Processed pork in the form of Parma Ham, Bologna Sausage and Mortadella are all popular. Duck, Geese and Turkey are also prepared in a number of ways.

Italy also has a fair amount of good quality cheese. Although they do not compare with the variety available in France, cheeses such as Parmesan, Gorgonzola, Mozzarella and ricotta are now world famous.

Italian ice cream is perhaps the best in the world. It comes in two basic varieties: Gelati and Granita. The gelati is milk based whereas the granita is sherbet like made of a thin powdery ice flavored with lemon, coffee, liqueur etc. Tiramisiu (which literally means  pick me up) is another popular Italian dessert. The Sicilian dessert Cassata  surprisingly, is made from a base of sponge cake layered with cream cheese flavored with sugar and tutti frutti and coated with chocolate.  Zabaione or Zabaglione is a thick custard like dessert which is made of a thick egg and sugar mixture and flavored with Marsala wine

Inspite of this rich heritage and tremendous variety, most of the average Italians prefer a simple meal. Lunch is the main meal of the day. Italian cooking has kept in touch with the requirements of a changing modern world. It is simple, adaptable and inexpensive. Moreover, Italy has not succumbed to modern techniques in food processing(using harmones in meat processing and chemical fertilizers in crop production). Italy is still wedded to old fashioned methods.

THE REGIONS OF ITALY

 

Culinary wise, Italy has been divided into various regions. Each region has its own history and its own distinctive methods of preparing food. These diverse styles give extraordinary variety to the national cuisine. The main regions include:

Rome Florence and Tuscany

Bologna, Venice and the North East

Genoa and Liguria

Milan and Lombardy

Turin and Piedmont

Naples and the South  &

The Islands of Sicily and Sardinia

Each region was formerly a separate state and the boundaries have been subject to constant change. Yet each region tends to remain stubbornly individualistic. Even today, food that is considered Italian in one region is said to be foreign in another! However, most Italian restaurants abroad are Neapolitan as it was from the relatively impoverished South that most immigrants came from, bringing with them their regional cuisine.

In the broadest terms, the dominant city in the North is Bologna, while it is Naples in the South. However, some regions refuse to align themselves with either. For example, Rome, historically the headquarters of the Catholic Church has attracted cultural and culinary contributions from across the globe. Florence enjoys a special status, tracing its origins to their leadership during the Renaissance. Sicily and Sardania are special cases as they are influenced and dependant on the sea.

One of the most famous culinary exports from Italy has been the pizza. Famous all over the world, it is one of the most popular fast food and spawned legions of takeaways and home delivery chain stores across the world. The original pizza came from Naples (and not America)  and was first cooked in wood fired ovens (al forno). Traditionally, it consisted of a base of bread dough, topped with a thick tomato sauce, flavored with basil and oregano, drizzled with olive oil and topped with grated mozzarella. This cheese made from the milk of the water buffalo has a special texture, so distinctive in a pizza. From this basic pizza came a variety with other flavors and topping.

Italy is more famous for its quantity rather than its quality of wine. Italy is the largest producer of wine in Europe. Some of its wines are world famous. The distinctive Ruffino, Lacrimae Christi &  Est Est Est are still very popular.

Cappuccino is another specialty which originated from the town of Padua, near Genoa and gets its name from the color of the robes of the capuchin monks. Another coffee special favored by the local Paduans is Caffe alla Borgia, coffee laced with apricot brandy and cinnamon.

SUNIL KUMAR

SIHM ROHTAK

CHAPTER 35: THE COOKING OF GREAT BRITAIN

British cooking is not known for its sauces or subtleties. It depends on the excellence of raw materials, the seasonal crops and a simple style of preparation that imparts flavour to the food. Fresh fish from the abundance of lakes, rivers and coastal waters are the pride of the country. No household is very far from the source of fish, which means it is always fresh enough to retain its true flavor.   The food is always plainly cooked, with not much addition of  sauce to a dish would be a negation of natures intent.

The indigenous and characteristic aspects of British cuisine have earned it a niche among the world cuisines.  As great meat caters, they have perfected the art of roasting as well as specialties such as steamed puddings, raised pies, potted, jellied and pickled meats and fish as well as an enormous and unique range of breads and cakes.

Unlike the French, the British have no Grande cuisine or customs of elegant highly contrived restaurant eating. Almost everyone royalty and commoner ate the same food, however fancy or plain.  The royal kitchens merely drew on a wider variety of foodstuffs and in greater quantities.  Britain was a worldwide trader since the 16^th century and could afford to import the best the world had to offer from tea, coffee and rice to exotic spices and fruits and all these found their way into home cooking.

British food is basic and uncomplicated. There are no gastronomic flourishes to upset natural flavours. It is substantial food starting with a traditional breakfast of sausage, bacon, grilled tomatoes and fried egg to afternoon teas of scones and jams, crumpets and cakes. Not for nothing, has British cuisine been affectionately dubbed “nursery food”. Some of the dishes have a schoolboy ring about them – “toad-in-the-hole”, bubble and squeak, spotted dick, bangers and mash.

The British Breakfast

Abroad, the British Breakfast has gained a formidable reputation. The French consider it perfectly barbaric; how could one start a day with a meal that includes fish and to make matters worse, strange grey glue called porridge. The fact is that the English breakfast is the result of a long process of evolution, of the slow amalgamation of foods from places outside Britain. The British consider it their finest meal. The noted novelist Somerset Maugham once observed “the best way to eat well in Britain is to have breakfast three times a day.

The English breakfast owes, in particular much to the Scots. They eat an even more substantial breakfast than the English and the Welsh or the Irish. They consume vast quantities of porridge and considerable amount of bread usually in the form of a breakfast roll called a ‘Bap” and drink prodigious quantities of tea sometimes laced with whisky. Aberdeen was the birthplace of the breakfast sausage, while Dundee is the home of marmalade without which no breakfast is completed. Orange marmalade, as the legend goes, was introduced into Scotland by Mary Queen of Scots in the 16^th Century. Originally, marmalade was made from quinces. The Portuguese name for this fruit is marmello from which marmalade gets its name. The Scots even produce a marmalade flavoured with whisky.

Bacon – is in original, entirely English. Ham, which also often figures on the breakfast table, is the cured  leg of the pig; bacon, the cured carcass. Only the English cured the carcass of the pig, usually by salting, while the rest of Europe ate it fresh.

Bacon and ham are cured all over the country, but the ham from York became most famous. Wiltshire ham is also famous especially for the mild and delicately flavored  Bradenham. Another specialty is the Seagee ham from Suffolk, treated by immersion in brine and sugar syrup, matured, smoked and then hung for three months to develop its characteristic sheen.

Oatmeal and porridge are also breakfast favourites.  In Scotland, porridge is traditionally eaten unsweetened but well salted, and with cold milk.  English people eat their porridge with sugar or sometimes golden syrup. The Welsh on the other hand obtain their early morning energy by consuming quantities of Siot, an oatcake soaked in buttermilk and brewis an oatmeal broth.  In England, the place of porridge was taken by a concoction called frumenty which some claim to be the oldest known dish in England.  With the urbanization that is taking place the British breakfast, which evolved from meat and beer through eggs and bacon, has now been reduced to tea and toast.  The next stage would surely be the continental coffee and rolls …… hardly worth getting up for!!!!.

A truly traditional British breakfast would include Baps or some other traditional bread, bacon, sausage and mushrooms, eggs –  boiled, fried or scrambled, ham kedgeree, stewed prunes, sautéed kidneys smoked haddock or kippers and of course tea and coffee.

Tea

To the uninitiated taking tea with the British may seem almost on par with the tea ceremonies of the Japanese. For tea is more than simply a drink in Britain. There is indeed ceremony and ritual surrounding the institution of tea. Tea is consumed at almost all hours of the day as a bracing start to the morning, a welcome break in the work at offices or in the factories and a pleasant cup at bedtime.  In rural areas, where dinner is eaten at midday the evening meal or supper is called the “ high tea” or “meal tea”. Among the gentry and middle class, tea is a hospitable spread for guests. In the cities where dinner is served late in the evening, tea is a necessary snack.  Afternoon tea becomes tea at its most ceremonious, an occasion for entertaining and is essentially a feminine affair.

The people of Britain purchase 475 million pounds of tea a year which amount to 9 cups of tea per head, per day.  Tea was introduced to Britain in the 17^th century by the Dutch who imported it from China.  In fact it was known as ‘Chinese Tcha’. It was first taken in bowls without milk or sugar. It was regarded a medicine and the first shipment in 1658 arrived as an expensive luxury. When Charles II married Catherine of Braganza in 1662 she introduced the fashion of tea drinking which had long been popular in Portugal.  Within 10 years imports had trebled. By the 18^th century tea had become such a popular drink that it has all but ousted beer. Until the 1930’s tea still came only from China, but gradually, imports from India and Sri Lanka also grew.  Today, nearly half the tea consumed in Britain comes from India.

A Nation of Meat Eaters

 

The main Sunday meal served at mid-day frequently is Roast Beef. It is served with its classic accompaniment of Yorkshire Pudding and its attendant of roast potatoes, which is an integral part of the meal. So are the other accompaniments  – mustard, horseradish sauce and a sauce boat of rich brown gravy. Green vegetables and perhaps carrots add a splash of colour.  In the olden days, beef was expensive and tough and often lacked flavour. Yet these very shortcomings contributed to the character of British Cookery. Spices and sauces were increasingly used to improve the flavour of the meat. Apart from giving the meat a better flavour an equally important function was disguising its taste. Meat was often ‘high’ or ‘tainted’ and often handfuls of pungently flavoured marigold flowers were put into soups and stews.

Those who could afford it used cloves, ginger, saffron and cinnamon. Later, India’s long association with Britain and educated the British palate to more fiery flavours. Into the sauces went turmeric, cumin and cardamom.  The East India Company also introduced the chutney to the British. By the 19^th century, refrigeration made it possible to import meat from Argentina, Australia and New Zealand.  In the big cities the faster lifestyles have led to the more time-consuming meat dishes like stews and casseroles to disappear from the daily menu.  Chops steaks and cutlets are now the more easily prepared cuts and hence more popular. Nearly every family can now afford a joint of meat whether beef, lamb or pork.

The thrifty use of leftovers lead to the creation of homely recipes such as shepherds pie, toad-in-the-hole and froise or fraise (a slice of leftover bacon, batter fried). Other popular stews include Irish Stew, Lancashire Hot Pot, Lobscouse (a mutton and vegetable stew with barley) boiled bacon and cabbage with peas pudding and beef roll.

The British are also great hunters– both furred and feathered. These include deer, rabbit, hare, grouse, partridge, pheasant and ptarmigan. A fair amount of poaching still goes on in the country. It is unlawful to hunt on Sundays and Christmas day but though these laws are obsolete there are strictly  enforced closed seasons. The general principle for all game is that they should be properly hung.  It should be allowed to age for anything between 3 days and three weeks. The strong flavours of hare and venison demand a sweet adjunct – red currant jelly or the fruity Cumberland sauce.

Game birds, when roasted are often served with crisp bacon, skirlie (oatmeal and chopped onion fried in fat) game chips and cranberry sauce. Wild duck is always served with orange sauce and goose was the traditional Christmas dish, long before the advent of turkey.

FISH

The Americans eat hamburgers, the Germans ‘Sauerkraut’, the Scandinavians open sandwiches and the French – all manner of things in sauces. The English do eat Roast Beef,  but only on Sundays. Every other day they eat fish and chips, and with roast beef, it wrestled for supremacy for the national dish of Britain. The fish and chips shops which dot every city, town and village of the country are a legacy of the industrial revolution in the 18^th century factory workers needed quick, cheap and nourishing meals. Shops that specialized in hot pies, potted eels (jellied), sausages and mash and fish and chips grew steadily in demand. The development of deep-sea trawlers, refrigeration and the expansion of the railways meant that fresh fish was readily available throughout the country. Potatoes are already abundant all over the British Isles. The combination came together as naturally as a pair of lovers. Cod, plaice, hake, skate and haddock are all popular traditional fish used for frying. Salt, vinegar, pickled onions and gherkins, ketchup, HP sauce all serve as accompaniments. Fish and chips sold as takeaways are always wrapped in newspaper. A true Britisher feels that without the newspaper, fish and chips do not taste the same.

Every part of the British Isles, from Scotland to Ireland has its own specialty. Scotland is the place for Salmon and Trout. For prawns it’s the Yorkshire coast of the North Sea. But for oysters you have to go to the Channel Islands. Ireland is known for it’s mackerels and the famous Dublin Bay prawns, Sole traditionally comes from the south, namely Dover.

While most of the traditional recipes for fish call for it to be plainly fried and served with a herb, butter and salad, there are some dishes that need longer preparation. Cod head and shoulder is an established favorite along England’s North East Coast. Another popular dish from Cornwall is ‘Stargazey Pie’ which uses Pilchards and Herrings in a puff pastry blanket.

CHEESE

 

Cheshire – the oldest and in many ways the most distinctive of the detectable variety of English cheeses. It is mellow with a hint of sharpness, firm but slightly crumbly, it has for years been one of the prime cheeses of England. It is the cheese of the rich and the poor, the kind and the peasant, the sailor and the soldier. Other great cheeses include Cheddar and Stilton and such lesser breeds as Wensleydale, Caerphilly and Gloucester. There was a time when nearly every farm and cottage in England made cheeses including many that attained the noble stature called ‘Blue’. Cheddar once called ‘Somerset Cheese’ was first made in the farms around ‘Wells’ and in the villages in Somerset’s Mendip hills. They are still produced in the region between the months of May and September. There is also a great deal of imported cheddar for the ‘cheddaring process’ by which the cheese is made is now adopted in many countries where surplus milk is available. Stilton was named after the tiny village of Stilton in Huntingdonshire, once a principal coaching stop for travelers on the Great North Road between London and York. Of all the Blue Cheeses, the finest is Stilton. It stands besides Roquefort, Bleu de Bresse, Gorgonzola and Cheshire as the worlds greatest. It is white cheese, tinted with yellow and richly marbled with greenish blue. The crust is dark and wrinkled and the flavour subtly mellow. Wheels of Stilton weigh around 14 lbs and are covered by a crust peculiar to each manufacturer.

No two manufacturers crusts are ever the same. Stilton should always be cut into wedges from the top and although a common practice in restaurants should never be scooped out with a spoon. Scooping is not the only barbarous practice followed with Stilton. To counteract dryness some people pour port into the scooped out portion making an otherwise perfect cheese soggy, purple hued and horrible. Port with it and not in it should be the rule. a good burgundy also goes well with Stilton as does crackers bread and at times even a slice of apple; other popular cheeses include Blue Vinny from Dorset, Derby from Derbyshire, Caerphilly, a soft unripened cheese from Wales, Leicester, a bright startlingly orange cheese made in Melton Mowbray although not one of the finest cheeses available, its colour comes in handy while cooking and gives a touch of extravagance to cheese sauces and dishes such as Welsh Rarebit. Lancashire also produces a notable cheese called ‘Leigh toaster’ and can be spread like butter on toast ( hence the name). Many cheeses have changed in character over the years. Double Gloucester for example, a hard but buttery cheese was once very much like Chershire. While it is still a noteworthy cheese, nobody compares it to Gloucester. Scotland’s principal contribution to cheese lovers is Dunlop, a milder version of cheddar. It is said to be of Irish origin. Ireland produces a cheese called ‘Blanney’ in Country Cork, described by some as a make believe Swiss.

The nine most popular of all British cheeses include Leicester, Derby, Stilton, Cheddar, Wensleydale, Cheshire, Gloucester and Wensleydale from England and Caerphilly from Wales. Many cheeses such as the Daventry, Lincoln, Oxford, and York are long forgotten. But of the cheeses that remain, the three greatest Cheddar, Cheshire and Stilton are here to stay.

THE BRITISH PUDDING

Each country in Britain has produced a wealth of puddings, large and small, hot and cold, all of them delicious. Rich golden ones, topped with jam and cream, tender beef and kidney ones steamed for hours. Puddings from country villages like those in Bedfordshire, where farmers wives created a sausage like object called a clanger containing meat and chopped vegetables at one end and jam and fruit at other.

The men working in the fields could thus carry their entire lunch in one piece. A Christmas specialty is the flaming Plum Pudding while Yorkshire pudding is the traditional accompaniment to Roast Beef.

There is such a variety of puddings that there is even confusion about the term. To many the ‘pudding’ is applied to any sweet, filling heavy one. There is also a pudding for everyone, for the traveler there is the railway pudding or omnibus pudding a white suet pudding and dotted with raisins (resembling a Dalmatian) is known as spotted dog or spotted dick. There is also a military pudding for soldiers, admirals, pudding served on board and cabinet pudding for VIP ministers.

In virtually every home in Britain you will find a deep bowl with a thick rim that is called a pudding basin. Although most puddings are steamed or boiled, many others are baked. Apricot pudding is a mixture of baking and steaming; a cross between a pie and a pudding.

Almost as popular as puddings are pies. A pie is usually a deep dish lined with pastry crust. A fruit pie would have a little sugar added to the dough. Tradition demands meat pies to be decorated with pastry strips while fruit pies are left plain. In this way you can tell if a pie is sweet or savoury. A tart may look like a pie but it is always a sweet dish made with fruit and jam. Tarts range from small jam-filled hollows of pastry (tartlettes) to large plate-sized pastry cases. Tarts are usually left uncovered by pastry. But hard and fast rules cannot be applied. Some tarts are covered. Some pies are not. As a general rule, if the dish is shallow, call it a tart, if it is deep call it a pie. ‘Hand raised’ pies such as game pies, pork pies, etc. are made with hot water pastry that can be worked like potters clay and shaped by hand into the box like casing that encloses the meat filling. These raised pies were called ‘coffyns’ in the middle ages. These are cooked for hours in a slow oven and then topped off with a rich aspic jelly after being taken out from the oven. Thyme, sage, majoram are used for flavouring and so were spices. Until quite recent times, meat pies were sold all over Britain by traveling piemen (Remember, Simple Simon??). Meat pies are now factory produced and eaten by thousands all over Britain.

SUNIL KUMAR

SIHM ROHTAK

CHAPTER 36: THE COOKING OF SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.

 

Like the people of the Iberian Peninsula the cooking of this region is a blend of many ingredients. The blend is complex at times, but the ingredients are not disguised and never spiced to alter basically simple tastes. The strength of Iberian cooking is natural and its subtlety is derived from the combinations of ingredients. Iberian food is easily recognizable. It is usually plain looking and attractively appetizing in simplest possible way. It is rarely over decorated; it is fresh and it is more concerned with good quality ingredients and their proper combination. One of the false accusations made of Spanish cooking is that it is “hot and highly spiced”. The truth is exactly opposite – Spaniards tend to shy away from spicy food. It is one of Spain’s paradoxes that a country largely responsible for providing pepper and other spices to the western world should have produced a cuisine that uses so little spice. Portugal on the other hand does make use of a myriad of spices and it is here that the difference between the two cuisines lies. Portugal is the land of explorers and of the explorers’ kitchen. The use of spice and butter and cream in traditional Portuguese cooking not only makes it spicier but also richer than its neighbour. New flavours brought back from Angola, Mozambique, India and Brazil (all once Portuguese colonies) have been incorporated into the national cuisine. In short, Portuguese food may seem a florid, exotic art that has made use of its many conquests to import and experiment with unknown tastes and which at times may even seem gaudy!

 

THE REGIONS

Continental Spain is divided into 13 regions whose boundaries are roughly those of its ancient kingdoms and ethnic regions. The regions are divided into provinces. The regions of Spain include Galicia, Asturias, Basque and Navarre in the north. Catalonia Valencia and Murcia in the East, Andulosia in the South with Aragon, new and old Castile, Extremadura and Leon in the center. Portugal is divided regionally by geography into the mountainous sometimes-humid north and drier more gentle south. These two regions are divided into 11 provinces, which include Minho, Tras-os-montes, Douro Litoral, Beira Litoral, Beira Alta, Beira Baixa, Estremadura, Ribatejo, Alto Baixo Alentejo and Algarve.

But do all these regions really differ from each other as far as culinary customs go? And for that matter does Portugal in any way consider itself related to Spain? It is in their kitchens that some of these answers lie. These people share the uses of ingredients such as olive oil, garlic and parsley, almonds appear frequently both raw and in cooking. Egg and egg yolk sweets are often seen. The range of fresh fish and shellfish from the waters of two seas (Mediterranean and Atlantic) is tremendous and cooking methods such as slow simmering in earthen ware dishes are shared by all. But the differences are as important as ate similarities. The central region of Spain is the zone of roasting and the hunt. Andalusia is the zone of frying and has also produced the excellent cold soup the Gazpacho. The eastern seaboard is the region of rice; above it, the zone of sauces; in the north the zone of fish (from the Bay of Biscay and the Atlantic ocean).

 

THE TAPAS

In the evenings, Madrilenos like to stop in at bars and cafes to enjoy a drink, usually sherry and a choice of tempting snacks called ‘Tapas’. The word tapa literally means lid, and the first tapas were pieces of bread used to cover wine glasses to keep out the flies! Today tapas are appetizers but of a variety that is unknown in other countries and range from eels to omlettes. These   snacks are so popular, that at tapa time, the bars and cafés in Madrid (and other cities where the custom has spread) are filled with customers and some of them spend the whole evening nibbling, skipping the evening meal altogether. A sample of tapas served at a Madrid café would include

–         Ham chunks garnished with red peppers

–         Roast pork with a sauce of olive oil, garlic, vinegar and spices

–         Kidney beans, parsley, onions and peppers in a vinegar sauce

–         Boiled baby potatoes with garlic, parsley and mayonnaise

–         Broad beans with ham and sausage

–         Potato omelette

–         Mushrooms garnished with garlic and parsley butter

–         Fish and crabmeat in brandy sauce with carrot

–         Kidneys sautéed in white wine sauce with onions and peas

–         Shrimp in hot olive oil with garlic and parsley

–         Chicken livers in meat sauce with egg slices

–         Salt cod with red peppers

–         Meatballs in gravy with peas

–         Black olives marinated with onions and oregano

–         Croutons of fried bread

–         Stewed salt cod with garlic and cayenne

–         Tuna fish pies

–         Fried green peppers and sausage

–         Pickled cauliflower

–         Stewed quail

–         Tripe stew

–         Snails in hot sauce

–         Pickled beets

–         Pigs feet with tomato, olive oil, garlic and onion

–         Stuffed green peppers with chopped veal in meat sauce

–         Sautéed stripes of baby eel

–         Clams with parsley

–         Small squid in their ink

–         Stewed chicken with boiled potatoes and mushrooms

–         Stewed partridge

PAELLA

The colorful paella, the Spanish culinary triumph best known outside the country, is from the eastern coast of Spain. The dish draws on a number of possible ingredients, lobster, shrimp, clams, mussels, squid, chorizo, sausages, chicken, rabbit, beans, tomato peas and peppers (red, green and yellow). However only rice, olive oil and saffron are always used and the paella will appear in various guises and forms depending on the supplementary ingredients that are used. The first paellas were always cooked outdoors over small fires and most Spaniards believe this is still the best way to cook paella.

The home of the Paella is the east coast of Spain starting in the south at Cabo de Gat and winding northward along the warm Mediterranean waters. Although it has many other names, the region is traditionally known as the Levante (Levantae in Spanish means to rise – the sun rises in the east). This region is called the Land of Rice and rice plays an important role not only in the preparation of Paella but in a number of dishes in the region. Paella is the most important Levantine dish as well as the most famous like many dishes, Paella is a poor man’s food that has become a rich man’s treat. The original Paella came into being near La Albufera close to the city of Valencia. From this simple beginning there is now a myriad of Paellas. It is said if you ask 100 Spaniards what goes into a Paella, you will get a hundred different answers. But if you ask the same question to 100 Levantinus, you’ll probably get 300 different answers (each man giving one for himself, one for his wife and one for his grandmother). But the true answer to what goes into paella is Rice, Saffron and Olive oil. Plus whatever is available local and fresh and cheap in the market, far from being complicated, paella is actually easy to prepare. It needs no special equipment except for a skillet type pan and an open fire.

 

GAZPACHO

Gazpacho is a traditional Spanish soup from the Andalusian region in the south of Spain. It is made of chilled vegetables, wine vinegar, olive oil, ice, garlic and a tinge of bread. The term gazpacho is a derivative of the Arabic term which means soaked bread. Many people add various other ingredients ranging from fried croutons to pitted cherries. As a rule, different parts of the country make this dish in different ways. In Jerez de la frontera chopped raw onions are used, in Sanlucar de Barrameda, mayonnaise is added and in Malaga it is called ajo blanco con uvas (white garlic with grapes) and has a base of almonds. There is even a hot winter gazpacho from the region of Cadiz. But it is the city of Seville that has made the plain, summer version of gazpacho famous throughout the world by keeping the simplest and lightest formula.

PORTUGAL

In the southwestern corner of Europe lies Portugal, 260 miles long and 140 miles wide. It is isolated from the rest of the continent by Spain and is isolated from Spain by rugged mountains. To its west it lies totally exposed to the harsh Atlantic Ocean. Portugal stands alone – related to Spain but separate from it.

It is important to understand that Portuguese cooking is not Spanish cooking. It is rather another type of Iberian cooking. Like all Iberian food it’s basically simple and a food of the people. Spices and herbs are more widely used here and taste combinations used here would be astonishing to most Spanish palates are common in Portugal. From North to South, the kitchens of Portugal share a wide variety of ingredients, fresh herbs like coriander as well as preserved foods such as salt cod are often found. Fresh lemon juice, traditionally used with fish is squeezed onto meat over here. Fresh and dried figs, nuts, rice egg yolks, vanilla and even curry powder are used through the country. More noticeable is the number of ways in which ingredients are used. The diversity of taste combinations is what makes Portuguese cooking most special.

The three northern provinces – Minho, tras-os-montes and Douro contain some of the poorest and most ragged land as well as some of the finest cooking in Portugal. Minho’s Caldo Verde is to Portugal what onion soup is to France. It has become a kind of national dish. The river waters of the region provide Lamprey for the traditional deep yellow gravied Lamprey stew. This often tastes and smells of curry, an ingredient brought back from India by Vasco da Gama in 1947. Curry is used as a flavour rather than a spice and it blends well with the dark, almost meaty flavour of the river Lamprey. Minho also produces a variety of fine rice dishes, combining rice with rabbit, duck or partridge a short distance from minho down the coast is Porto, the capital Duoro Litoral famous the world over for Port wine. Porto is equally fomous as the place to eat Tripe. The citizens, in fact are known as Tripe eaters in the rest of the country. There are several legends to explain this, the most famous being prince Henry the Navigator in 14^th slaughtered all the cattle of the region to feed the troops of his crusader fleet leaving only the tripe for the citizens of Porto. The region is also famous for its yolk and sugar sweets. The most famous of which is jelly like confection called Sao Goncalo. There are literally thousands of egg yolk sweets in Portugal offset by a glass of ruby port.

In the South of Portugal lies its capital Lisbon, one of the loveliest and most conveniently forgotten capitals. Here, one can find the finest coffees from Angola, Mozambique and other Portuguese missions overseas. Also from Brazil, Colombia and the Orient. The national sweet Pudim Flan is a rich caramel custard, very popular in Lisbon and is the perfect accompaniment to coffee. It is creamer, heavier and sweeter than the one found in Spain and often is Portugal is flavoured with a liqueur.

SUNIL KUMAR

SIHM ROHTAK

Chapter 37: The Cooking of Mexico

Note: – The word ‘Indian’ in this handout refers to the natives of South            America- the Aztecs and Mayans and not the Indians from India.

In the nearly 500 years since the Spanish conquest of Mexico and South America, a series of richly diverse cuisines has developed in the region. In Mexico, where there was high Indian Civilization, modern cooking is still firmly based on its Aztec- Mayan foundations, while revealing clearly the impact of Spain, which introduced its own foods and cooking methods. To a lesser extent, Mexico was influenced by the sophisticated dishes that were brought in from France and Austria during its brief experience as a French puppet state ruled by the ill-starred Maximilian and Carlotta. The dishes of Peru, heart of great Inca Empire, which took in most of what is now is Ecuador, as well as the better part of Chile and Bolivia and a small part of Argentina, still bear the unmistakable stamp of their ancient past overlaid by Spanish imports. Brazil is kaleidoscopic. There was no great society here, so the indigenous people contributed little more than raw materials. Today, the cooking of Brazil is a mixture of Portuguese, African slave and primitive Indian influences, and it is both unique and good. The cuisines of Chile, Argentina and Uruguay, with no great indigenous traditions of their own, have evolved as the many Europeans strains in the population- Spanish, English, German, Italians and others- reacted to the native ingredients. Many a fine dish started as an improvisation using a local food instead of an unobtainable European one. Many a home dishes suffered a sea change in the long migration. English bread sauce, surely one of the most innocent inventions of the kitchen, becomes quiet complicated in Chile when as salsa de pan it takes the place of béchamel as the basis of what would have been the cream dishes. Adaptations and inventions, the clash as well wedding of cultures, have produced a repertoire as varied as the geography of the mountain-dominated continent.

The rapidity with which New World accepted Old World foods was rivaled by the speed of the reverse process. The Spaniards, obsessed by gold, did not at first realize that the real treasure of the Americas was – sweet corn, potatoes, tomatoes, chilies, chocolate, tobacco, avocados, peanuts, cassava      ( tapioca, manioc or yuca), beans, vanilla, sweet potatoes, pineapples and papayas. But these foods quickly spread to other parts of the world, and today it is impossible to imagine life without most of them. Modern transport and food-handling means, moreover, that a great many of the foods necessary for cooking the Latin American way are readily available in the cities throughout the Europe.

Latin American cooking is not just another kind of European cooking. To be sure, there are Spanish and Portuguese influences in it, and the big hotels that cater for foreigners serve standard international food just as they do in New York or London, but under this superficial layer is food that differs sharply from anything found in Europe or the United States. It is partly African, brought by slaves from West Africa. It is partly tropical, using hot-country produce not available in Europe. Most of all it is Indian, inherited from the civilized Indians of the New World- the Aztecs, the Incas and others – who were conquered by the Spaniards but whose descendents still cling tenaciously too many parts of their ancient culture, and particularly to their indigenous foods.

The Indian influence is naturally strongest in countries where most of the population has Indian blood. For this reason Mexican cooking is more Indian than Spanish, and in Peru, Ecuador and Bolivia, which were parts of highly civilized Inca Empire, a large percentage of people still eat Inca food almost unmodified. But the Indian influence shows up strongly all over South and Central America. Even in Buenos Aires, whose population is entirely European, characteristically Indian dishes have a traditional place in the cuisine.

When the Spaniards and the Portuguese began exploring this part of the New World at the end of the 15^th century, they found large areas thinly inhabited by savage Indians who lived chiefly by hunting and fishing and by gathering wild vegetable foods. Most of Brazil, the Argentine  and Uruguay was in the primitive “food-gathering” state, but along other coasts and Caribbean islands the Indians were more numerous and supported themselves by accrued sort of agriculture. The Spaniards particularly noticed a tall and beautiful plant that the people of Cuba grew in small fields and called by a name that sounded like “my-ees”. It grew 10 or more feet high and bore great cylindrical ears with closely set, shiny yellow kernels. This wonderful plant was maize, or the Indian corn, the staff of the life of New World. It not only took the place of the Old World’s wheat, but also produced greater yields and would flourish in many places where wheat will not survive.

Corn by itself is not a complete and health-giving diet. It has less protein than wheat and lacks certain vitamins and other desirable nutrients, but Indian seems to have had a folk wisdom that anticipated by thousands of years our modern scientific knowledge of dietary needs. As well as corn they grew beans: the ordinary kidney beans that most of the world eats now. Beans are rich in protein, and when they were planted in the same field as corn, the bacteria on their roots collected nitrogen and helped to preserve the fertility of soil, which is quickly depleted by the corn planted alone. The corn-bean combination, supplemented with other vitamin-rich vegetables, was the staple food of the Indian civilization, and millions of people in Latin America still live on it today.

When the Spaniards and the Portuguese settled among the Indians of the Latin America in the 16^th century, they brought with them the foods and the cooking of the Mediterranean world: their edible plants, domestic animals- especially pigs- together with onions, garlic cinnamon, rice and many other things. The reception of theirs imports varied a good deal. Some conservative Indian communities accepted only a few, others were more open minded or were compelled as slave laborers to grow European crops for their conquerors and prepare European dishes for them.

In most areas a gradual mixing and blending took place, with differences in each locality. Spanish foods were cooked by Indian methods, producing such hybrids as tortillas made of wheat instead of corn. Indian foods were cooked by Spanish methods: meats were often fried rather than roasted or stewed. Rice, introduced from the Old World, was enlivened with New World tomatoes and chilli and became the familiar Spanish rice that is eaten under various names in most of Latin America. European onions and garlic must have filled an aching need. They made an immediately hit and are now grown in every tucked-away valley. Their flavour is strong in dishes in all other respects Indian.

Out of this culinary crossbreeding came the regional or Creole cuisines of Latin America. Probably the most varied and remarkable of them is the Mexican, which managed to preserve the pre-Conquest Indian cooking while freely adopting and modifying many good things from Spain. At its best Mexican cooking is very good indeed, and the Mexicans are enormously proud of it. Their scholarly gourmets dig into old records to find the first mention of a famous dish, and gastronomic nationalist campaign against the snobbish and commercial propaganda which they blame for the inroads made by French and international cooking among the upper classes and growing popularity of American hot dogs and hamburgers among the common people.

The Creole cooking that gourmets hold in such honour evolved in a variety of fascinating ways. The story is told of a banquet that Hernan Cortes, the commander of the Spanish conquistadores, gave for his Indian allies at Coyoacan, which is now a suburb of Mexico City. A feature was roast pork with Spanish pigs, but was far more important than the meat itself was the fat dripped from it. The Spaniards showed the Indians how it could be used to cook many foods in a new and convenient ways, by frying. The pre-Conquest Indians had used no cooking fats or oils, but they cooked tortillas on pottery griddles called comales; these were easily modified into frying pans, some of which were made with depressions to hold fat. As pigs multiplied and spread rapidly over Mexico, the Indians learned to vary many of their ancient foods by frying them in lard.

It would be an exaggeration to say that modern Mexican cooking equals Aztec cooking plus pigs, but it is very nearly truth. The food of the Aztecs was boiled, grilled or steamed, or eaten raw. Their finest dishes were elaborate stews containing many ingredients cooked in a thick sauce. Modern Mexican cooking retains all these methods but adds frying, both in deep fat and on a lightly greased griddle. Perhaps half the food in Mexico is fried in some way before it is served. Tortillas may be fried, and vegetables and meats are fried before or after boiling; even cooked beans are fried. Good Mexican food is seldom greasy, but most of it is could not be produced without frying, which was the great contribution made by Spaniard’s pigs!!

Mexican cooking starts, now as in Aztec days, with tortillas, the “bread of Mexico”, and only those who have tasted them hot off the griddle know how good tortillas can be. They are not at all hard to make, and are good with butter or eaten plain as an accompaniment to other foods. Tortillas are eaten by the humbler Mexicans with just a little chilli, beans or sauce. Mexicans use them also as plates, forks and spoons. They dip their tortillas into stews and use torn-off pieces of them to scoop up sauces. They can even, with skill, eat soup with them. Almost any kind of food that is not too liquid can be dumped on a tortilla and rolled up in it. This combination is a taco, the Mexican equivalent of a sandwich. It may be taken directly from the griddle, in which case it will be soft, or it may be stuffed, rolled or fried. Whether soft or hard, tacos may contain nothing more than chopped chilli or they may be bursting with meat and rich sauce. If so, they should be eaten with caution to keep the contents from squirting out at far end. A good precaution is to bend the taco a little, holding the far end closed and slightly raised. It is also important to bite with the teeth only, and not to squeeze the taco with your lips. With a little practice this is easy, and it makes taco eating much more relaxed and dignified.

A more elegant adaptation of tortilla is the enchilada. This is a tortilla that has been dipped in a thin sauce, usually of green or red tomato, and rapidly fried. It is then rolled up like a taco, but unlike the improvised taco, the enchilada may have an elaborate filling of pork or shredded chicken breast, as well, perhaps, as onion, cheese, coriander, and tomato. The remaining sauce is poured over enchilada before serving, and top may be decorated with cheese and chopped onion. Thrifty Mexican housewives customarily use left-over tortillas to make not only enchiladas but, among other things, chilaquiles, tortillas that have been shredded, fried and layered in casserole with a chilli sauce.

The way to use tortillas is almost endless. Tortillas two to five inches in diameter that have been fried crisp and sprinkled with chopped onion, chilli, grated cheese or bits of meat are called tostadas. The smaller tostadas make excellent canapés. Like little edible plates, these fried tortillas, which are flat, round versions of the corn crisps widely sold in United States, can support almost anything that is not too juicy, and they taste better than conventional cocktail biscuits.

Another excellent variation is the quesadilla, which is freshly made tortillas filled with meat and sauce, beans, cheese or vegetables, and folded like a turnover. The dough is sometimes flavored with grated cheese, bone marrow or chilli. The edges of tortillas are crimped to make them stick together, and the whole thing is fried crisp in deep fat. Quesadillas are easy and excellent and anyone who happens to have raw tortilla dough can experiment with them. When made very small they are delicious two-bite canapés.

Besides giving variety to a tortilla-based Mexican diet, lard – the great gift of Spaniards- also revolutionized the cooking of beans. In the day of Aztecs beans are grown and eaten as much as they are now, but although they come in many sizes and colors, there were few ways of cooking them. They were generally simmered in an earthenware pot and flavored with chilli and herbs. Beans are still cooked in much this same way and served de olla (out of pot), but equally popular are fried beans. They are first boiled until soft, then mashed and fried slowly in lard until the paste is stiff and dry enough to hold its shape. It is usually sprinkled with grated cheese, and may be decorated with bits of fried tortilla stuck into its sides and top. Fried beans, illogically called frijoles refritos (refried), are served in nearly every house and every restaurant in Mexico. Foreigners often find them rather dry, but a little water added to them after frying solves the problem. Anyone who eats beans- or almost any other Mexican food- must face the chilli problem. Most Mexicans are crazy about chilli, that vegetable dynamite, which they inherited from their ancestors and of which there are at least 140 varieties. Almost every part of Mexico has its own special chilies, of which the local citizenry is aggressively proud. Grocer’s shelves and market stalls are piled high with the fiery stuff. Country people grow chilies in their back gardens and munch the hottest of them raw as if they were strawberries. Most of the wonderful-looking stews and sauces sold in Mexican markets are spiced with chilli that is too hot for most visitors to Mexico even to touch with the tips of the tongues, and some recipes call for quantities of it that will knock the average tourist off the chair.

Heavy chilli eating does not seem to do any harm; there are no Mexican ailments that can be blamed on it. Indeed, their gourmets look on it as a special national asset that no other people can properly enjoy. Chilli, they say, is the wine of Mexican poor, which ennobles their otherwise monotonous diet of corn and beans. Some recipes call for several kinds of chilli, and gourmets claim that they can tell at a taste whether any one of them has been omitted or substituted.

In spite of this mystique about chilli, people who visit Mexico need not worry about having their tongue burned. Restaurants patronized by foreigners are careful to serve dishes containing little or no chilli. They sometimes make two versions of each dish, the mild one for foreigners. In the larger Mexican cities many private homes are as free of chilli as they would be in Manchester. Many members of Mexican upper class copy American or European customs and even feel that there is something rather about chilli.

Although jarring accidents do happen now and then when the unwary tourist gulps a numbing mouthful, it would be shame if chilli eating were to die out. Once a modest immunity has been acquired, which is not difficult, the hot Indian stews and sauces become wonderfully interesting.

Chilli is really for those whose palates are educated to it. Traditional Mexican dishes are still delicious and unusual even when they contain little or none. Many of them consist of a sauce, usually a very thick one that is poured over or contains solid food, such as beans, pieces of tortilla or shredded meat mixed with chilli. Plain roast meat or chicken is rare in traditional Mexican cooking, partly because in the old days meat and chicken were so tough that they had to be boiled for hours before human teeth could cope with them. Their quality has since improved, but Mexican cooking still features stews and sauces. Mexican cookery books devote most of their attention to them, and at least one is devoted solely to sauces. Many of the mysterious concoctions that perfume the Indian markets with their enticing smells are sauces pure and simple. The purchaser gets a small amount in an earthenware bowls and eats it with hot, freshly cooked tortillas that he has bought from a nearby stall.

If local variations are included, the full Mexican cuisine has hundreds of sauces. Some are simple, merely chilies- or chilies, onions and tomatoes- chopped fine, mixed with water or vinegar and served either raw or boiled to enliven tortillas, tamales or any other dish that needs enhancement. Mexicans generally believe that nothing should be eaten without some sort of sauce.

More complicated sauces are generally called moles, which comes from an Aztec word, molli, meaning a sauce flavored with chilli. Some of these are very complicated indeed. The most famous of them, mole poblano, is the essence of Mexico’s national holiday dish, mole poblano de guajolote (turkey in Pueblan sauce). Moles can now be bought in packets. But a generation ago traditional Mexican kitchens were small factories where numerous servants needed to prepare a mole and other time consuming dishes. For mincing and blending the ingredients they used a technique handed down from Aztec times, employing a stone pestle and a molcajete, a three-legged mortar usually made up of pocked volcanic stone. The work was slow, but servants were cheap and plentiful, and results were worth the investment in time and manpower.

Molcajetes are still the mainstay of the humbler Mexican kitchen, and are still on sale on market stalls. Hundreds of thousands of them must have been carried home by tourists. Small ones make an excellent ashtray, especially for pipe smokers who want something solid against which to knock pipes. But in up-to-date kitchens molcajetes are obsolete. Servants are not as plentiful nor as humble in modern, prosperous Mexico as they used to be. Today the Mexican servant disdains the slow and laborious molcajete and demands an electric blender. Indeed, the kitchens of large houses need two or more blenders to reduce chilies, nuts, tomatoes, marrow seeds and what-have-you to mole smoothness.

Mexican cooking is still laborious, even with blenders. In most kitchens there are numerous chilies and tomatoes are to be heated over a flame or over glowing charcoal to make the skins come off; tortillas must be toasted; earthenware pots and casseroles must be watched during the long hours of simmering. But convenience foods are beginning to penetrate Mexico. In prosperous residential districts of the larger cities, modern supermarkets are replacing the little specialty shops and open air markets that traditionally distributed Mexico produce. The supermarkets look much like their American prototypes, and they offer the same bewildering variety of canned and packaged food, most of it produced in Mexico. Side by side with items familiar to Americans are others peculiar to the country, such as the many kinds of dried or powdered chilli, in plastic bags. Packets of dried meat and dried shrimps are also popular, and the shelves offer more kinds of beans and corn than would be found in American supermarkets.

In spite of convenience foods and labor saving devices, many Mexicans still insist on eating in an elaborate manner. Families who can afford to do so eat four meals a day, all of which are served in the dining room with much changing, and washing of dishes. Breakfast is substantial, with fruit, tortillas, bread or sweet rolls, coffee or chocolate with milk, and eggs or meat, or something both. The big meal is dinner, comida, on the middle of the day, usually starting between 1 and 2 p.m. Around 6 p.m. comes merienda, a sort of tea-less high tea, when the father of the family, exhausted by the daily grind, restores himself with coffee or chocolate, sweet rolls, biscuits or cake, and atole, a rich corn broth usually fortified with sugar, milk, eggs or fruit. Supper (cena) comes late, 8 to 10 p.m. It is often skipped, and at home is usually light. But on formal occasions or in restaurants it can be very heavy indeed.

But the midday meal (comida) is a traditional feast and has at least six courses, with a change of plates for each course and a stream of hot tortillas circulating continuously in their napkin-lined baskets. First comes soup, and Mexican soups are likely to be nourishing beyond the call of duty, swarming with the dumpling like tortilla balls, vegetables, noodles and pieces of meat or chicken. The next course is also called soup, although soup has nothing to do with it. The sopa seca (dry soup) is actually a highly seasoned, starchy dish of rice, noodles, macaroni or cut up tortillas cooked in an elaborate sauce. Then comes a course of chicken or fish, or perhaps the wild game, followed by a salad. The main course consists of beef, pork, lamb or cabrito (young goat), roasted, boiled or fried, and several vegetables, and this followed by “refried” beans smothered with grated cheese. Lastly there is the sweet, usually a baked pudding, custard or a cooked fruit dish, and then-after coffee and fresh fruit in season-the family retires for a well-earned and, by this time, much needed siesta.

Except when entertaining formally, most modern Mexican families do not serve these gargantuan midday dinners. Some of them have even taken to northern ways, eating their main meal in evening and skipping the afternoon merienda. The pangs of hunger caused by this deprivation are stilled by the extraordinary amount of nibbling between meals that goes on in Mexico. In most residential districts hardly a street lacks a stall or pavement peddler selling some sort of snack. Some sell tacos, tamales, sandwiches, sweets, peeled fruit or fruit juices. More elaborate establishments have rotating spits on which chickens or pork are grilled or great masses of sliced bacon whose outer layers curl and whose fat drips into a pan beneath. At any hour of the day there are plenty of customers, and office workers who can not get to them keep stocks of food hidden in their desks. By American standards Mexico is poor, but most of its people, in the cities at least, seem to have enough money to nibble when ever spirits move them.

Nearly all food in Mexico, from the street corner snack to the eight-course dinner served in lordly mansion, tastes differs from its northern counterparts, when such counterparts exists. Most often the difference is chilli, which shows up in unexpected places, such as in scrambled eggs, or in sauce for another favorite, huevos rancheros. Even a bright green garnish that looks like chopped parsley turns out to have a completely unfamiliar flavour, perhaps of fresh coriander. Sometimes, indeed, half a dozen unfamiliar herbs and spices contribute to the effect of a Mexican soup or stew. Other differences of taste come from Mexican ways of cooking. Even in modern kitchens many utensils are likely to be made up of earthenware, and the slow, steady simmering permitted by this material affects the taste of this dish. The popular Mexican habit of frying skinned tomatoes slowly into lard until they turn into a thick paste also yields a sauce that tastes quiet unlike tomatoes cooked in any other way.

Mexican food also varies widely from region to region. North of Mexican border, a traveler can drive from New York City to Los Angeles and almost identical meals at roadside restaurants all along the way. Mexico is not so homogenous. It is not really a single country; it is many small countries tied loosely together. In pre-Spanish days it was inhabited by Indians speaking at least 14 distinct families of languages and varying in culture from fierce savagery to a rather surprising sophistication. Many of them were independent of the Aztecs, and even those Indians who were subject to them clung stubbornly to their own peculiar customs.

This situation continued after the Conquest. Because there was little commerce or travel across Mexico’s rugged mountains, the Indian communities kept their identities and handed down their customs to the populations of mixed Spanish and Indian ancestry that developed locally. The country people in adjacent valleys wear different hats, live in different kinds of houses, and cook different food. A pleasant recreation of a Mexican gourmet s is to travel around their country sampling different local cuisines. Often they find distinctive traditional dishes in remote places that are known in Mexico City.

Northern Mexico, especially the larger states that border on United States, was thinly inhibited in pre-Conquest times by warlike, primitive Indians, mostly nomadic hunters whom the civilized Aztecs called Chichimecs (Son of the Dog). When the Spaniards arrived with hardy long-horned cattle, a wave of pioneer-Spaniards, mestizos and Indians – moved north to graze their animals on the rich grasslands of Chichimecs. They also took varieties of wheat that thrived where there was less rain than corn required. The north is still cattle country with wheat grown on favorable areas, and beef and wheat are more prominent in the cuisine there than they are in other parts of Mexico.

One beef dish from the north- chili con carne – is not considered Mexican in Mexican proper. It was developed in Texas, the Mexicans say, and is therefore American. Supposedly it was invented in Texas when that state was part of Mexico’s wild frontier. Few Mexican cookery books describe it, but they give many recipes for beans cooked with meat, onion, tomato, chilli and spices. Originally beef in chill corn carne was cut into small pieces instead of being minced. It tastes much better when meat is prepared that way.

Since northern Mexico is arid cattle country where any moisture evaporates quickly in the hot, dry air, it is only natural that dried beef, called cecina, should be one of the traditional foods. This is not the thinly sliced, unnaturally pink, almost flavorless stuff that is sold in the United States under the name of chipped beef. It is robust even overwhelming, and the way it is made in Northern Mexico tells you why. The first step is to buy a large solid chunk of beef and form it into a long sheet by making alternate knife cuts from opposite sides that do not reach quiet the way all through. Opened up in accordion folds, this ribbon of meat is sprinkled with salt on both sides and folded up again for two hours to absorb it. It is then unfolded and exposed to the sun until it is dry but not stiff. It is rubbed with lemon juice and pepper and stretched out in the cool shade for two days to mature. After this it is pounded with a mallet – or a stone- to tenderize it. Finally it is refolded for future use. During these vicissitudes it acquires a powerful flavour like those marvelous well-hung steaks that are served in expensive restaurants but can not be bought in supermarkets. It can be boiled in stews, soaked and fried, or chopped and made into fillings for tacos, enchiladas and tamales. Everywhere, cecina makes itself known in no uncertain manner, like strongly flavored cheese.

The Mexican north is also a land of cheese. It is not very splendid cheese and is used mostly in cooking, for which it serves very well.  A fine dish from Chihuahua, the big state opposite west Texas, is made of beans cooked till barely soft, fried in lard and heated carefully with cheese until cheese melts. In Sonora, another northern state, they make a rich potato soup – first frying the potatoes with onions, tomatoes and chilies – and cover it with a substantial layer of melted cheese.

In other parts of Mexico beef and cheese are not as important. The place of beef is taken by  pork, goat, turkey or chicken. Goat, if it is young, is excellent eating. In season, you can buy kid in London but you usually have to order it beforehand.

In small central state of Aguascalientes, cabrito is rubbed with a sauce of garlic, chilli and spices in vinegar and left overnight to marinate. The next day, while it is slowly roasting, it is basted with same sauce, which dries till it forms a savory crust on the meat. An even more festive dish in the north is a whole carbito stuffed with an elaborate mixture of tomatoes, minced pork, ham cubes, raisins, almonds, pine-nuts, hard-boiled eggs and many spices. Few who taste this splendid roast worry much about the endearing personality of the sacrificed cabrito.

In the tropical parts of Mexico, which mostly lie along the coasts, hot-country fruits and vegetables play a prominent part. The banana, which grows nearly everywhere, is used both as a fruit and as a vegetable. The varieties are generally eaten ripe and fresh or made into desserts, though they are also fried. The non-sweet kinds, plantains, which are more important, are always cooked. A typical fish of Gulf Coast is boiled, mashed plantains, fried in oil with onions and tomatoes. It is usually served hot with prawn and chilli sauce and has only a very faint banana flavour.

The favorite fruit-vegetable of Mexico is the avocado, which is grown in many varieties in warm regions and converted into the famous Guacamole. It may be native to Mexico, but most think it was domesticated in Peru or some other part of South America several thousand years ago. Some avocados have black skins and are no bigger than plums, while others are green and grow to the size of cantaloupes. The flavour varies from poor to wonderful.

Mexicans eat avocados with sauce vinaigrette just as we do, but that is only the beginning. Avocados are also eaten with salt and lemon juice, to enhance their bland flavour. Pieces of avocado show up in any dish, including soups and stews. An excellent soup is made up of entirely mashed avocados, and sometimes a few avocado sliced are spread on top, and they also melt into it if the soup is hot enough. The most famous avocado dish is guacamole, which is mashed avocado mixed with tomato, chopped onion, fresh coriander and chilli. The proportion of the dish varies all over the country, and the chilli may be left out. Salt and pepper are included and often olive oil. Guacamole is usually served with tortilla dishes, refried beans or anything that can benefit from its soft green smoothness and the contrast of flavors. Or it can be served as a separate dish. It can be eaten with a fork or spoon or used as a dip, but Mexicans like to make tacos of it by rolling it into tortillas. They take the tacos on the picnic, and since this paste turns brown on exposure to the air, Mexicans cover its surface within avocado seeds in order to avoid discoloration.

The cuisine of Southern Mexico is different fro other regions – and even more exotic. The state of Oaxaca, for example, is a southern centre of Indian tradition whose cooking features red, yellow, green and black moles. Famous Oaxaca dishes are made up of flowers and young shoots of marrow plants and of “sea- chestnuts”, a kind of crustacean with a shiny dark-brown shell. One of the oddest is made of chalupines, crickets that are gathered in the corn-fields. In Oaxaca and other warm parts of Mexico tamales are wrapped in banana leaves instead of corn husks. The stiff centre rib of the banana leaf is removed and the remainder of the great leathery leaf is put into water and brought to the boil. It is then soft and pliable and can be torn into squares and wrapped around tamale as easily as if it were as sheet of cooking parchment. The result is unusually unattractive, and pleasure of unfolding green Oaxaca tamale increases the enjoyment of eating the food inside.

Perhaps the most distinctive of all the local cuisines of Mexico is that of Yucatan, a state so hemmed in jungles and swamps that, until a modern highway was built, it could not be reached from the rest of the country except by air or sea. Yucatan is a land of Maya, whose civilization reached amazing heights and went into decline long before the arrival of the conquering Spaniards. Many Yucatecs are descendents of these Maya; their profiles look like the bas-reliefs carved on the ancient ruined temples of the area. These people still speak the Maya language, and names of the some of their favorite local dishes baffle tongues accustomed only to English. A perch grilled to spicy sauce, for example, is called mero en tikin-xik.

Prawns are plentiful in Yucatan, and a pleasant local way of serving them as a cold hors d’oeuvre is to arrange four very large ones in as soup plate and cover them with vinegar, olive oil, finely chopped onion, chilli, diced tomato and chopped fresh coriander. The dish is half prawn salad and half prawn cocktail – and a far better way of serving them either.

A well-known Yucatec specialty is papatzul, which means “food of the lords”. It is tortillas rolled into tacos stuffed with shredded pork or hard boiled eggs and served with two sauces, one made principally of ground, toasted marrow seeds and the other made with tomatoes. The tacos are then glazed with clear green oil pressed from the marrow seeds.

Panuchos are another agreeable specialty of Yucatan. They are small tortillas stuffed with mashed beans or chopped meat, and covered with a special spicy sauce. The stuffing operation is a delicate one. It is a special skill lifting the thin skin that forms when a tortilla is cooked, and the women who do it are not eager, or perhaps not able, to explain how they accomplish this feat.

Many meat or fowl dishes in Yucatan are called pibil to show that they are steamed in a pit, pib in Maya. In some case cooking is actually done in a laborious way, but often pollo pibil (steamed chicken, Yucatan style) is steamed for hours in a covered pot, which gives much the same effect. The chickens are cut up and the pieces marinated for 24 hours in a sauce that contains achiote (annatto), the red orange spice and coloring that is so dear to the Yucatec. Then they are folded like tamales in banana leaves and steamed till, they are tender. Opening one of these packaging is a delight. The banana leaf is pulled apart with two forks and a wonderfully fragrant steam arises. The chicken pibil inside has a pungent flavour and a bright red colour that no one would expect.

For the adventurous traveler, Mexico offers many such tempting foods yet tourists who hear about the strange and the delicious dishes of many local cuisines usually make no attempt to taste them. The expensive tourist hotels, which look so hygienic and seem to be impersonally modern, serve mostly international food with perhaps a few standard Mexican dishes , carefully watered down to suit the palates of the most of the timid guests. Tourists might be tempted to eat in purely Mexican restaurants, many of which look marvelous, but they heard terrible traveler’s tales about compatriots who have died after drinking unbottled water, or even after a single bite of a septic taco.

Modern medicine has worked an enormous change in what a tourist should or should not eat that gives the lie to these tales of woe. Mexican standards of sanitation are certainly well below those of most parts of  Europe, but immunization wards off the worst disease, typhoid, which is carried by food and water, and other gastric infections are not as terrifying as they were before antibiotics were developed. And the worst of all – malaria, yellow fever and typhus – have nothing to do with eating.

Many foreigners who visit Mexico suffer from diarrhea, sometimes called     “Montezuma’s revenge”. It generally goes away of its own accord, but there is no reason to let it spoil a holiday for even a short time. A few doses of Enterovioform usually restore peace and calm to the intestinal tract. In most of the cases upset is not caused by the dangerous germs but merely by exhaustion or change of routine or climate. Mexicans and other Latin Americans frequently suffer from the self-same affliction when they come to Europe.

The best policy when exploring strange Mexican foods off the sheltered tourist track is simply to use elementary caution and a reasonable amount of common sense. Then stop worrying. Both Mexico and the other countries of Latin America have an endless variety of unusual but wonderful dishes waiting to be tasted.

Chef SUNIL KUMAR

IHM, GWALIOR

CHAPTER 38: THE COOKING OF AMERICA.

 

THE HISTORY OF CUISINE IN NORTH AMERICA

 

THE COLONIES

When the colonists came to America, their initial attempts at survival included planting crops familiar to them from back home in England. In the same way, they farmed animals for clothing and meat in a similar fashion. Through hardships and eventual establishment of trade with Britain, the West Indies and other regions, the colonists were able to establish themselves in the American colonies with a cuisine similar to their previous British cuisine. There were some exceptions to the diet, such as local vegetation and animals, but the colonists attempted to use these items in the same fashion as they had their equivalents or ignore them if they could. The manner of cooking for the American colonists followed along the line of British cookery up until the Revolution.

There was a general disdain for French cookery, even with the French in South Carolina and French Canadians. Reinforcing the anti-French sentiment was the French and Indian War from 1754-1764. This created a large anxiety against the French, which influenced the English to either deport many of the French, or as in the case of the Acadians, they migrated to Louisiana. The Acadian French did create a large French influence in the diet of those settled in Louisiana, but had little or no influence outside of Louisiana.

The American colonial diet varied depending on where the settled region. Local cuisine patterns had established by the mid 18th century. The New England colonies were extremely similar in their dietary habits to those that many of them had brought from England. A striking difference for the colonists in New England compared to other regions was seasonality.  While in the southern colonies, they could farm almost year round, in the northern colonies, the growing seasons were very restricted. In addition, colonists’ close proximity to the ocean gave them a bounty of fresh fish to add to their diet, especially in the northern colonies. Wheat, however, the grain used to bake bread back in England was almost impossible to grow, and imports of wheat were far from cost productive. Substitutes in cases such as this included cornmeal.

As many of the New Englanders were originally from England, game hunting was often a pastime from back home that paid off when they immigrated to the New World. Much of the northern colonists depended upon the ability either of themselves to hunt, or for others from which they could purchase game. This was the preferred method for protein consumption over animal raising, as it required much less work to defend the kept animals against Native Americans or the French.

NATIVE MEAT AND LIVESTOCK

The most commonly hunted and eaten game included deer, bear, buffalo (Bison) and wild turkey. The larger muscles of the animals were roasted and served with currant sauce, while the other smaller portions went into soups, stews, sausages, pies and pasties. In addition to game, mutton was a meat that colonists would enjoy from time to time. The Spanish in Florida originally introduced sheep to the New World, in the north however, the Dutch and English introduced sheep. The keeping of sheep was a result of the English non-practice of animal raising. The keeping of sheep was of importance as it not only provided wool, but also after the sheep had reached an age that it was unmanageable for wool production; it became mutton for the English diet. The forage–based diet for sheep that prevailed in the Colonies produced a characteristically strong, gamy flavor that had a tougher consistency. This required aging and slow cooking to tenderize.

OILS & FATS
A number of fats and oils made from animals served to cook much of the colonial foods. Many homes had a sack made of deerskin filled with bear oil for cooking, while solidified bear fat resembled shortening. Rendered pork fat made the most popular cooking medium, especially from the cooking of bacon. Pork fat was used more often in the southern colonies than the northern colonies as the Spanish introduced pigs earlier to the south. The colonists enjoyed butter in cooking as well, but it was rare prior to the American Revolution, as cattle were not yet plentiful.

EARLY SEAFOOD

The American lobster was a staple of the colonial diet

Those that lived near the shores in New England often dined on fish, crustaceans and other animals that emanated from the waters. Colonists ate large quantities of turtle, and it was an exportable delicacy for Europe. Cod, in both fresh and salted form was enjoyed, with the salted variation created for long storage. Lobsters proliferated in the waters as well, and were extremely common in the New England diet. Cod and Lobster were so common in the diet, that some often complained about how often the dined on it. The highest quality cod was usually dried, however, and exported to the Mediterranean in exchange for fruits not grown in the American colonies.

VEGETABLES
A number of vegetables grew in the northern colonies, which included turnips, onions, cabbage, carrots, and parsnips, along with a number of beans, pulses and legumes. These vegetables kept well through the colder months in storage. Other vegetables grew which were salted or pickled for preservation, such as cucumbers. As control over the northern colonies’ farming practices came from the seasons, fresh greens consumption occurred only during the summer months. Pumpkins and gourds were other vegetables that grew well in the northern colonies; often used for food for animals in addition to human consumption. In addition to the vegetables, a large number of fruits were grown seasonally. Fruits not eaten in season often saw their way into preservation methods like jam, wet sweetmeats, dried or cooked into pies that could freeze during the winter months

NATIVE AMERICANS & THEIR IMPACT

Native Americans utilized a number of cooking methods. Grilling meats was common. Spit roasting over a pit fire was common as well. Vegetables, especially root vegetables were often cooked directly in the ashes of the fire. As early Native Americans lacked the proper pottery that could be used directly over a fire, they developed a technique which has caused many anthropologists to call them “Stone Boilers.” The Native Americans would heat rocks directly in a fire and then add the bricks to a pot filled with water until it came to a boil so that it would cook the meat or vegetables in the boiling water. Another method was to use an empty buffalo stomach filled with desired ingredients and suspended over a low fire. The fire would have been insufficient to completely cook the food contained in the stomach however; as the flesh would burn so heated rocks would be added to the food as well. Some Native Americans would also use the leather of a buffalo-hide in the same manner.

The Native Americans are credited as the first in America to create fire-proof pottery to place in direct flame. The Southwest Native Americans had also created ovens made of adobe which was used to bake items such as breads made from cornmeal. Native Americans in other parts of America made ovens out of dug pits, like early Tandoor ovens in Egypt. These pits were also used to steam foods by adding heated rocks or embers and then seaweed or corn husks (or other coverings) placed on top to steam fish and shellfish as well as vegetables; potatoes would be added while still in-skin and corn while in-husk, this would later be referred to as a clambake by the colonists. The hole was also a location for producing what has become Boston baked beans made from beans, maple sugar and a piece of bear fat.

One of the most important occurrences in this period was the interaction with the people of the area and borrowing from Native American cuisine. From this interaction came one of the main staples of the Southern diet: corn (maize), either ground into meal or limed with an alkaline salt to make hominy, also called masa. Corn was an essential and versatile crop for the early settlers. Corn was used to make all kinds of dishes from the familiar cornbread and grits to liquors such as whiskey and moonshine, which were important trade items. Though a lesser staple, potatoes were also adopted from Native American cuisine and were used in many similar ways as corn.

Native Americans introduced the first Southerners to many other vegetables still familiar on southern tables. Squash, pumpkin, many types of beans, tomatoes (though these were initially considered poisonous), many types of peppers and sassafras all came to the settlers via the native tribes. Many fruits are available in this region. Blackberries, raspberries, and many other wild berries were part of settlers’ diets.

Early settlers also supplemented their diets with meats derived from the hunting of native game. Venison was an important meat staple due to the abundance of white-tailed deer in the area. Settlers also hunted rabbits, squirrels, opossums, and raccoons, all of which were pests to the crops they raised. Livestock in the form of hogs and cattle were kept. When game or livestock were killed, the entire animal was used. Aside from the meat, it was not uncommon for settlers to eat organ meats such as liver, brains and intestines. This tradition remains today in hallmark dishes like chitterlings (commonly called chit’lins) which are fried large intestines of hogs, livermush (a common dish in the Carolinas made from hog liver), and pork brains and eggs. The fat of the animals, particularly hogs, was rendered and used for cooking and frying

While the earliest cuisine of the United States was primarily influenced by indigenous Native Americans, the cuisine of the thirteen colonies or the culture of the American South; the overall culture of the nation, its gastronomy and the growing culinary arts became ever more influenced by its changing ethnic mix and immigrant patterns over the 20th century unto the present. Some of the ethnic groups that continued to influence the cuisine were here in prior years; while others arrived more numerously during “The Great Transatlantic Migration (of 1870-1914) or other mass migrations. Some of the ethnic influences could be found in the nation from after the Civil War and into the History of United States continental expansion during most of the 19th century. Ethnic influences already in the nation at that time would include the following groups and their respective cuisines: Indigenous Native Americans in the United States (Indians) and Native American cuisine, select nationalities of Europe and the respective developments from early modern European cuisine of the colonial age: British-Americans and on-going developments in New England cuisine, the national traditions founded in cuisine of the thirteen colonies and some aspects of other regional cuisine. Spanish Americans (Hispanic) and early modern Spanish cuisine, early German-American or Pennsylvania Dutch and Pennsylvania Dutch cuisine, French Americans and their “New World” regional identities such as: Cajun and Cajun cuisine.

 

RACE & SOCIAL EFFECTS ON AMERICAN CUISINE

The various ethnicities originating from early social factors of Race in the United States and the gastronomy and cuisines of the “New World,” Latin-American cuisine and North American cuisine: African-Americans  and “Soul Food.” Louisiana Creole and Louisiana Creole cuisine. The word Creole refers to people of various racial decedents that descended from the settlers of Colonial France and Hispanic America in Colonial French Louisiana, before it became part of the United States in 1803 (with the Louisiana Purchase, with claim to the culture and Creole cuisine. They are Multi-racial (“Creoles of Color”) being of mixed (mainly) French, Spanish, African-American, and Native-American heritage.

Mexican-Americans and Mexican-American cuisine; as well as related regional cuisines:

Like Tex-Mex (regional Texas and Mexican fusion).

AFRICAN AMERICAN INFLUENCES

Plantations were born after the Southern settlers realized the great region’s potential for agricultural profit. The wealthiest land owners began to cultivate the land in larger and larger tracts and in the process began using slaves from Africa for labor.

Most Africans’ diets consisted of greens and various vegetables. Stews were common and rice was a familiar staple to them. Foods that became part of the Southern diet from African-American heritage include eggplant, kola nuts, sesame seeds, okra, sweet potatoes, field peas, peanuts, black-eyed peas, African rice and some melons.

The African influence is present in traditional Cajun cuisine. Gumbo (a stew using chicken or seafood, sausage, rice, okra and roux) and étouffée, (a thicker, less liquid gumbo served over a bed of rice) are all born from African cooking tradition.

The term “soul food” dates only to the first half of the 1960s. In the South the phrase is not used and it is simply thought of as home cooking. There are many stories about non-black Southerners going to other parts of the country and having to seek out African American restaurants for the food they grew up on. In some cases they have been told they cannot get certain grocery items and to try the foreign sections. Generally speaking white Southerners eat the exact same food in the exact same way as traditional African Americans. There are some foods, however, like chitlins and pig’s feet that are more associated with poverty (even among white Southerners) and have simply been employed over time more by blacks than whites.

WHAT IS AMERICAN CUISINE?

One characteristic of American cooking is called fusion food; a fusion of multiple ethnic or regional approaches into completely new cooking styles. The cuisine of the South, for example, has been heavily influenced by immigrants from Africa, France, and Mexico, among others. Asian cooking has played a particularly large role in American fusion cuisine. Similarly, while some dishes considered typically American many have their origins in other countries, American cooks and chefs have substantially altered them over the years, to the degree that the dish as now enjoyed the world over may even be considered American. Hot dogs and hamburgers are both based on traditional German dishes, brought over to America by German immigrants to the United States, but in their modern popular form they can be reasonably considered American dishes.

Many companies in the American food industry develop new products requiring minimal preparation, such as frozen entrees. Some corporate kitchens such as Campbell’s develop consumer recipes featuring their company’s products. Many of these recipes have become very popular. For example, the General Mills Betty Crocker’s Cookbook, first published in 1950 and currently in its 10th edition, is commonly found in American homes.

The second characteristic of American cooking is called Immigrant cuisine, which refers to food that originates as a foreign cuisine (usually one carried over by immigrants) that has been altered, sometimes dramatically, to use tastes, techniques, and ingredients common or unique to the new culture. Immigrant cuisines are in many ways similar to fusion cuisines in how they combine elements of different cultures; however, where a fusion dish is generally an intentional combination of sometimes-clashing styles, an immigrant cuisine is formed from a process of adapting old-country recipes to different ingredients and social pressures. Well-known examples include Americanized cuisines such as Italian-American and Chinese-American cuisines, as well as cuisines such as Mexican, Brazilian, and Caribbean where Native American food traditions intermingled with imported traditions from the British Isles, Western Europe, and sub-Saharan Africa.

NEW ENGLAND

New England is the most northeastern region of the United States, including the six states of Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont. The region consists of a heritage linking it to Britain. The Native American cuisine became part of the cookery style that the early colonists brought with them. The style of New England cookery originated from its colonial roots, that is to say practical, frugal and willing to eat anything other than what they were used to from their British roots. Much of the cuisine started with one-pot cookery, which resulted in such dishes as succotash, chowder, baked beans, and others.

Lobster is an integral ingredient to the cuisine, indigenous to the shores of the region. Other shellfish of the coastal regions include little neck clams, sea scallops, blue mussels, oysters, soft shell clams and razor shell clams. Much of this shellfish contributes to New England tradition, the clambake. The clambake as known today is a colonial interpretation of a Native American tradition. The fruits of the region include the grapes used in grape juice made by companies such as Welch’s, along with jelly. Apples from New England include the original varieties, Baldwin, Lady, Mother, Pomme Grise, Porter, Roxbury Russet, Wright, Sops of Wine, Peck’s Pleasant, Titus Pippin, Westfield-Seek-No-Further, and Duchess of Oldenburg. Cranberries are another fruit indigenous to the region.

NORTHEAST – MID-ATLANTIC

Maryland boasts a plethora of marine fare, including blue crabs, crab cakes, crab soup, seafood lasagna, raw oysters, and rock fish. The state even has its own brand of potato chip, called Crab Chips. Marylanders use Old Bay, a local spice, to season everything from crabs to applesauce to peaches to popcorn. Pennsylvania could easily be called the junk food capital of the United States. It is the home of Hershey’s, Tastykake, Snyder’s of Hanover, Peanut Chews, and the cheese steak. Pretzels are a common snack in Pennsylvania. They come in many varieties, from the hot, soft, chewy pretzels sold by vendors on the street or stadium to the salty, hard, crunchy variety sold by pretzels manufacturers in the grocery and quick stop stores of Pennsylvania. New York City is known as one of the gastronomical capitals of the United States. With its large immigrant population virtually every cuisine could be found here. New York City is famous for its New York-style pizza, Bagels, Calzone, Pastrami, and Manhattan clam chowder. Buffalo, New York is known for its Buffalo wings, and Sponge Toffee.

Boston is the center of Massachusetts, and its norms and modes have influenced the whole of the state. A major seaport from Colonial times, Boston is famous for its clam chowder, called “New England clam chowder” to distinguish it from a similar soup made in New York.

SOUTHERN

The most notable influences come from African, Native American, British, Irish, French, and Spanish cuisines. Soul food, Creole, Cajun, and Floribbean are examples of Southern cuisine. In more recent history, elements of Southern cuisine have spread north, having an effect on the development of other types of American cuisine.

The food of the American South is quite multicultural. Many items like squash, tomatoes, corn (and its derivatives, including grits itself), to say nothing of types of cornbreads) as well as the practice of deep pit barbecuing have been inherited from the indigenous Americans. Many foods associated with sugar, flour, milk, eggs (many kinds of baking or dairy products like breads and cheeses) are more associated with Europe. The South’s propensity for a full breakfast (as opposed to a Continental one with a simple bread item and drink) is derived from the British fry up, although it was altered substantially. Much of Cajun/Creole cuisine is based on France and on Spain to a lesser extent. Floribbean is more Spanish-based with obvious Caribbean influences; while Tex-Mex has considerable Mexican and native tribe touches

.

SOUTHWEST

 

Southwestern cuisine is food styled after the rustic cooking of California, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, as well as parts of Texas, Oklahoma, and Colorado. It comprises a fusion of recipes for things that might have been eaten by cowboys, Native Americans, and Mexicans throughout the post-Columbian era; however, there is a great diversity in this kind of cuisine within the above-mentioned states.

Southwestern cuisine is heavily influenced by Mexican cuisine but often involves larger cuts of meat, and less use of tripe, brain, and other parts not considered as desirable in the United States. Like Mexican cuisine, it is also known for its use of spices (particularly the Chile, or Chili pepper) and accompaniment with beans (frijoles), cooked in a variety of manners. Chili con carne, fajitas, certain kinds of chiles rellenos (stuffed chiles), and various steak-chile combinations are particularly well-known Southwestern foods. Note that “chili” generally refers to a thick stew or soup prepared with beans and meat, while “chile” refers to the peppers that grow in this region and have been eaten for thousands of years by the native people.

Tex-Mex is a term for a type of American food which is used primarily in Texas and the Southwestern United States to describe a regional cuisine which blends food products available in the United States and the culinary creations of Mexican-Americans that are influenced by the cuisines of Mexico. A given Tex-Mex food may or may not be similar to Mexican cuisine, although it is common for all of these foods to be referred to as “Mexican food” in Texas, the United States and in some other countries. In many parts of the country outside of Texas this term is synonymous with Southwestern cuisine.

MIDWEST

Midwestern cuisine is a regional cuisine of the American Midwest. It draws its culinary roots most significantly from the cuisines of Central, Northern and Eastern Europe.

Midwestern cuisine generally showcases simple and hearty dishes that make use of the abundance of locally grown foodstuffs. Its culinary profiles may seem synonymous with “American food.” “Think of Thanksgiving dinner, turkey with cranberry sauce, wild rice, and apple pie.” Sometimes called “the breadbasket of America,” the Midwest serves as a center for grain production, particularly wheat, corn and soybeans. Midwestern states also produce most of the country’s wild rice. Beef and pork processing always have been important Midwestern industries, with a strong role in regional diets. Chicago and Kansas City were historically stockyard and processing centers of the beef trade, while Iowa remains the center of pork production in the U.S. Far from the oceans, Midwesterners traditionally ate little seafood, relying on local freshwater fish, such as perch and trout, supplemented by canned tuna and canned or cured salmon and herring, although modern air shipping of ocean seafood has been increasing Midwesterners’ taste for fish.

Dairy products, especially cheese, form an important group of regional ingredients, with Wisconsin known as “America’s Dairy Capital,” although other Midwest states make cheese as well. The upper Midwest, a prime fruit-growing region, sees the extensive use of apples, blueberries, cranberries, cherries, peaches and other cold-climate fruit in its cuisine. As with many American regional cuisines, Midwestern cooking has been heavily influenced by immigrant groups. Throughout the northern Midwest, northern European immigrant groups predominated, so Swedish pancakes and Polish pierogi are common. Wisconsin, Missouri, Kansas, Ohio and Illinois were destinations for many ethnic German immigrants, so pork sausages and potatoes are prevalent. In the Rust Belt, many Greeks and Greek Macedonians became restaurateurs, imparting a Mediterranean influence. Native American influences show up in the uses of corn and wild rice.

Traditionally, Midwestern cooks used a light hand with seasonings, preferring sage, dill, caraway, mustard, parsley, not to bold or spicy flavors. However, with new waves of immigrants from Latin America and Asia moving into the region, these tastes are changing. This section of the country is also headquarters for several seminal hamburger chains, notably McDonald’s in Oak Brook, Illinois (founded in California, but turned into the iconic franchise by Ray Kroc beginning with a still-standing store in Des Plaines, Illinois).

FAR WEST

As one of the U.S. states nearest Asia, and with a long-standing Asian American population, the state tends to adopt Asian foods fairly liberally. The American sushi craze no doubt began in California; the term ‘California roll’ is used to describe sushi with avocado as a primary ingredient. These days, items like mochi ice cream and boba are popular. Because Californians tend to be culturally diverse, tend to be more traveled, and have culinary sophistication and openness to new eating experiences, fusion cuisine is accepted and popular in California. California Chef Wolfgang Puck is known as one of the pioneers of fusion cuisine, popularizing such dishes as Chinese chicken salad at the restaurant Ma Maison. His restaurant “Chinois” was named after the term attributed to Richard Wing, who in the 1960s combined French and Chinese cooking at the former Imperial Dynasty restaurant in Hanford, California. In addition to traditional and/or commercialized “Mexican” food, California restaurants serve up Honduran, Oaxacan and nearly every other variation of South American food there is. For example, Pupusarias are common in areas with a large population of Salvadorians (Pupusas are stuffed tortillas from El Salvador). Of late, “Fresh Mex” or “Baja-style” Mexican food, which places an emphasis on fresh ingredients and sometimes seafood, is highly popular. El Pollo Loco (“The Crazy Chicken”), a fast food chain that originated in Northern Mexico, is a common sight. Baja Fresh, Rubio’s Baja Grill, Wahoo’s Fish Taco, Chipotle, Qdoba and La Salsa are examples of the Baja-style Mexiamerican food trend. Modern cuisine of Hawaii is a fusion of many cuisines brought by multi-ethnic immigrants to the islands, particularly of American, Chinese, Filipino, Japanese, Korean, Polynesian and Portuguese origins, and including food sources from plants and animals imported for Hawaiian agricultural use from all over the world. Since fresh fish is in such abundance, sushi is number two to the ever famous, “Spam” (processed ham) on the islands.

PACIFIC NORTHWEST
The best chefs in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States—principally the states of Washington and Oregon (though the northern panhandle of Idaho may also qualify)—stress the use of fresh local ingredients. Vegetables, fruits, and berries from the region’s vast agricultural areas, its great wealth of distinctive seafood, and its vital wines, all play a part in the cuisine. The region is also an active part of the food culture of the Pacific Rim and looks to Asia for many culinary influences. Salmon is the ingredient that comes to mind most readily, and with good reason; the several varieties of local salmon are relatively easy to prepare and have good reputations as healthy protein sources. Many restaurants plank roast salmon in the tradition of several of the coastal Native American tribes of the region. The cook seasons the salmon and bakes it on a board of fragrant cedar or alder wood. Another simple option would be to sauté or bake the salmon with a Japanese soy-based or teriyaki sauce. A third option would be to top the salmon with a sauce of local huckleberries or chanterelle mushrooms. Dungeness crab, Alaska king crab, scallops, mussels, and clams are only a few of the other seafood choices. The region has a large oyster cultivation industry and hence uses oysters in many ways: barbecued, baked, fried or raw on the shell. Both Washington and Oregon are major producers of fruit; Washington ranks first among American states in apple production, accounting for fully half the nation’s supply. Pears and stone fruits like peaches, apricots and cherries are also available in abundance. When fresh these fruits become mainstays of pies, cakes, and desserts; fruit preserves, jellies, nectars and reductions of all kinds are distinctive in the region. The fruits also find their way into savory foods: pork chops with apricot; salmon sautéed with apples and apple cider; cherry-glazed chicken; swordfish with peach salsa; salads, like the Waldorf, that feature sliced apples or other fruits.

The abundance of rain in the forests of Oregon and Washington State make them ideal environments for the growth of wild mushrooms. Truffles, Morels, chanterelles, matsutakes, boletus and hedgehog mushrooms are the basis for most commercial harvesting; shitakes and other varieties are also commercial grown. Export demand from Europe and Japan is strong for many varieties, but when local chefs can obtain fresh wild mushrooms, they invariably incorporate them into their cooking. The Pacific Northwest region has a reputation for rain, but in actuality have a number of climates and micro-climates, many of which have proved ideal for wine production. Walla Walla, an inland area in Washington State, is well known for its sweet onions, descendents of Italian onion varieties brought to the region during the nineteenth century. The Pacific Northwest region has a decided tendency to champion organic and sustainable production of all types of foods, vegetables and herbs, and hence has an excellent infrastructure to process, ship and market these foods to local restaurants. If one were to create a stereotypical menu that used the full bounty of the region it would undoubtedly include fresh seafood or organically raised meat, organic herbs and vegetables, local fruits or berries, and choice wild mushrooms. The preparation method would stress simplicity and clear flavor notes, with no one ingredient dominating the others, and with the possible use of select Asian flavorings and cooking techniques.

ROCKY MOUNTAIN CUISINE
In a city like Denver, the largest in the Rocky Mountain region, a sophisticated gourmet could enjoy French, Thai, even Ethiopian food; in ski resorts like Sun Valley, Idaho, Park City, Utah, or Aspen, Colorado, the options for expensive, cosmopolitan dining are numerous. All the same, throughout the Rocky Mountain West, a simple, direct, and distinctly regional cuisine makes its mark. The hearty cooking associated with cattle ranches, rodeos, and the American cowboy is alive and well in the Rockies: good steaks, chili, fresh fish, barbecue, and often a good dose of spicy Tex-Mex food. Cuisine using game, freshwater fish, grass-fed beef and bison, free range poultry, local fruits, berries, mushrooms and vegetables. While game like elk, antelope, caribou, pheasant, duck or quail may be available wild at a hunters’ camp, people in the region usually depend on farm-raised game. Game meat tends to be very lean and hence is often made into pâtés or sausages that incorporate both spicing and extra fat; if in steak or chop form it may be wrapped in bacon or served with a flavorful sauce made from fruit, berries, or a potent wine reduction. Game also does well in slow-cooked stews. If game serves as the region’s signature novelty dish, fresh, local, grass-fed beef, bison (popularly called buffalo) and lamb may well be the most satisfying meat choices. Idaho Russet Burbank potatoes are known throughout the United States for their high starch and low moisture content, features that make them ideal for baking; the baked potato, topped with melted butter, sour cream and chives, is the ideal complement to a flavorful steak. The lakes and streams of the Rocky Mountain States have some of the best freshwater fishing in the world. Fishing enthusiasts look forward to consuming the many varieties of trout, walleye, bass and other fish they may themselves catch. Wild Pacific salmon and other fish and shellfish from the Pacific region are also widely served.

I hope you get an opportunity to visit the U.S. and experience all it has to offer I am sure it’s fast states and endless food venues will not disappoint.

THE GREAT LAKES

 

During the 1800s and 1900s, waves of immigration to the Great Lakes area came from Germany, Scandinavia, Holland, and Poland. Most were farmers who were attracted by the cheap, fertile land. The Homestead Act of 1862 offered free acreage to anyone who agreed to farm it for a certain number of years. The close-knit, family-based communities that developed retained their ethnic character for generations, cooking their traditional foods adapted to local ingredients. The population of the Great Lakes region continues to be largely German, Scandinavian, Dutch, and Polish. A number of miners originally from Cornwall, England, also migrated to the area. The Detroit-Dearborn metropolitan area in Michigan now boasts the largest Arab American population in the United States—the city of Detroit being the principal port of entry in the United States for Arab immigrants. The Arab Americans in Michigan-have contributed some foods of the Middle East, such as hummus, to the “menu” of the Great Lakes region. The Great Lakes region was originally populated by American Indians who taught later European settlers how to hunt the local game, fish, and gather wild rice and maple syrup, as well as how to grow and eat corn and native squashes and beans. The European immigrants, mostly from Germany, Scandinavia, Holland, Poland, and Cornwall, England, each shared their traditional dishes with the rest of America. The Germans contributed frankfurters (hot dogs), hamburgers, sauerkraut, potato salad, noodles, bratwurst, liverwurst, and pretzels to the American diet. Scandinavian foods include lefse (potato flatbread), limpa (rye bread), lutefisk (dried cod soaked in lye), and Swedish meatballs, as well as the smorgasbord (a table laid out with several courses of small foods). The Polish introduced kielbasa (a type of sausage), pierogies (a type of stuffed pasta), Polish dill pickles, and babka (an egg cake). Pancakes are a Dutch contribution, along with waffles, doughnuts, cookies, and coleslaw. Miners from Cornwall brought their Cornish pasties, and small meat pies that were easily carried for lunch. Later immigrants from Arab countries settled in Detroit, Michigan, and introduced America to foods like hummus (puréed chickpeas), falafel (deep-fried bean cakes), and tabbouleh (bulgur wheat salad).

Dairy is a major industry in the Great Lakes region, particularly Wisconsin, known as “America’s Dairy land.” Dairy farmers in Wisconsin milk about 2 million cows every day, and there is one cow for every two people in the state. Not surprisingly, milk, butter, and cheese are staples in the Great Lakes diet. Pigs are also common on farms in the Great Lakes region because they take up less space and are easier to raise than cattle. Pork, therefore, is another common ingredient in Great Lakes cooking, especially in the form of sausage.

 

 

 

 

Today’s regional food examples and history from presentation slides:

New England Region

 

Boston Cream Pie        

 

    

It is really a cake, not a pie. Two layers of sponge cake are filled with thick vanilla custard and topped with a chocolate glaze or a sprinkling of confectioners’ sugar. It is cut in wedges like a pie. 1856 – The Parker House Hotel (now the Omni Parker House Hotel), claims to have served Boston cream pies since their opening in 1856. French chef Sanzian, who was hired for the opening of the hotel, is credited with creating Boston cream pie. This cake was originally served at the hotel with the names Chocolate Cream Pie or Parker House Chocolate Cream Pie.

New England Claim Chowder         

 

        

 

Chowder which is a variety of soup featuring salted pork fat, thickened with a flour, heavy roux, crumbled ship biscuit or saltine crackers and milk, first materialized with Breton fisherman who migrated south to New England from Newfoundland. They would take much of the offal of their daily catches and combine them with readily available ingredients in large soup pots to feed themselves, each other and their families.

Over time, as it became a culinary staple in the Northeast, the recipe refined and began to be served commercially. This was when large amounts of milk and cream began to be added, giving it its characteristic look and texture we know today. Also, large slices of potato became common in the soup, and in the chowders widely recognized as the best, onions sautéed in the drippings from pork fat are also incorporated into the recipe. To this day there are usually never vegetables besides a select few legumes added to chowders, although some recipes call for thinly sliced strips of carrot to enhance the aesthetic value.

Brownie, Brownies

A chocolate bar cookie. The name comes from the deep-brown color of the cookie.

The origins of the chocolate brownies are uncertain but it is felt that it was probably created by accident, the result of a forgetful cook neglecting to add baking powder to chocolate cake batter. Sears, Roebuck catalog in 1897 published the first known recipe for the brownies, and it quickly became very popular (so popular that a brownie mix was even sold in the catalog).

Lobster Roll               

 

  

 

No one knows with exact certainty, but it all starts with the fact that while the wealthier women of the 1800’s enjoyed lobster at their lavish luncheons, they did not like them torn apart tableside. So, the cooks for these families started turning the sweet chunks of meat into more “user-friendly” salads. Now this delicious lobster salad had to wait patiently, for decades, to be united with its culinary soul mate, the toasted hot dog bun. This happened sometime after 1912, which was when the first soft hamburger and hot dog buns were commercially manufactured.

Chocolate Chip Cookie

The first chocolate chip cookies was invented in 1937 by Ruth Graves Wakefield. One of Ruth’s favorite recipes was an old recipe for “Butter Drop Do” cookies that dated back to colonial times. The recipe called for the use of baker’s chocolate. One day Ruth found herself without a needed ingredient. Having a bar of semisweet chocolate on hand, she chopped it into pieces and stirred the chunks of chocolate into the cookie dough. She assumed that the chocolate would melt and spread throughout each cookie. Instead the chocolate bits held their shape and created a sensation. She called her new creation the Toll House Crunch Cookies. The Toll House Crunch Cookies became very popular with guests at the inn, and soon her recipe was published in a Boston newspaper, as well as other papers in the New England area. Word of the cookie spread and it became popular.

 

Mid Atlantic Region

 

Buffalo Chicken Wings            

 

 

Buffalo Chicken Wings were originally created at Frank & Teresa’s Anchor Bar in Buffalo, New York, on October 30, 1964, by owner Teresso Bellissimo. They are deep-fried chicken wings served with a hot sauce, celery stalks, and blue cheese dressing.

The Anchor Bar’s Buffalo Chicken Wings were an instant success and their impact on Buffalo was so great that former mayor, Stanley M. Makowski, proclaimed Friday, July 29, 1977, as “Chicken Wing Day.” The city’s proclamation noted that because of Mrs. Bellissimo’s kitchen, “thousands of pounds of chicken wings are consumed by Buffalonians in restaurants and taverns throughout the city each week.”

Hoagie

Hoagies are built-to-order sandwiches filled with meat and cheese, as well as lettuce, tomatoes, and onions, topped off with a dash of oregano-vinegar dressing on an Italian roll. A true Italian Hoagie is made with Italian ham, prosciutto, salami, and provolone cheese, along with all the works. It was declared the “Official Sandwich of Philadelphia” in 1992. The Hoagie was originally created in Philadelphia. There are a number of different versions to how the Hoagie got its name, but no matter what version is right experts all agree that it started in Philadelphia or the towns’ suburbs. The most widely accepted story centers on an area of Philadelphia known as Hog Island, which was home to a shipyard during World War I (1914-1918). The Italian immigrants working there would bring giant sandwiches made with cold cuts, spices, oil, lettuce, tomatoes, onions, and peppers for their lunches. These workers were nicknamed “hoggies.” Over the years, the name was attached to the sandwiches, but under a different spelling.

New York Cheesecake                 

New York cheesecake is the pure, unadulterated cheesecake with no fancy ingredients added either to the cheesecake or placed on top of it. It is made with pure cream cheese, cream, eggs, and sugar. Everybody has a certain image of New York Style Cheesecake. According to New Yorkers, only the great cheesecake makers are located in New York, and the great cheesecake connoisseurs are also in New York. In the 1900s, cheesecakes were very popular in New York. Every restaurant had their version. I believe the name “New York Cheesecake” came from the fact that New Yorkers referred to the cheesecakes made in New York as “New York Cheesecake.” New Yorkers say that cheesecake wasn’t really cheesecake until it was cheesecake in New York.

 

Philadelphia Cheese Steak             

         

According to Philadelphians, you simply cannot make an authentic Philadelphia Cheese Steak sandwich without an authentic Philadelphia roll. The rolls must be long and thin, not fluffy or soft, but also not too hard. They also say that if you are more than one hour from South Philly, you cannot make an authentic sandwich. Tired of hot dogs residents and tourists would come for paper-wrapped Philly cheesesteaks and sodas. They would study the wall of celebrity photos before taking seats at the no-frills picnic tables. For the uninitiated, a sign explains the drill: with or without onions; specify provolone, American or Cheez Whiz; have your money ready; go to the back of the line if you make a mistake.

Southeast Region

Hot Brown Sandwich             

 

Chef Fred K. Schmidt at the Brown Hotel in Louisville, Kentucky, created The Hot Brown sandwich in 1926. Bored with the traditional ham and eggs, Chef Schmidt, delighted his guests by creating the Hot Brown, an open-faced turkey sandwich with turkey, bacon, pimientos, and a delicate Mornay sauce. The sandwich is place under the broiler to melt the cheese.

 

Sweet Tea                

 

 

In the South, ice tea is served year round with most meals. When people order tea in a Southern restaurant, chances are they will get sweet ice tea. Outside of the southern states, iced tea is served unsweetened or “black,” and most people have never even heard of sweet tea.

 

 

 

 

 

Virginia Ham                

 

  

The climate of Virginia was so perfect for raising pigs, that they multiplied and became so plentiful that they became a nuisance to the settlers. The settlers rounded the pigs up and transported them to an island in the James River. This island became known as “Hog Island.” These wild pigs were the principal food for new settlers, as well as the Indians, because they were available all the year and more easily caught than wild game and fish. Since the Native Indians had been curing venison by smoking long before the settlers arrived in Jamestown, they taught them to cure meat with salt or “magic white sand.” Their methods of salting, smoking and aging venison were adapted by the white man to preserving the meat of the plentiful razorback hog. Smithfield, Virginia’s most famous pig local came to notice in 1902.  In 1926 the Virginia General Assembly passed a law that said only peanut-fed hogs, cured and processed in the town of Smithfield, could be called Smithfield hams. It was the practice to let pigs roam the peanut fields, foraging for peanuts missed during harvesting. Later the peanut feed stipulation was dropped and the hogs are fed a variety of grains.  Today, there are only four companies that can legally sell their products as Smithfield hams. All others are called country hams.

 

Grits

 

Grits (or hominy) were one of the first truly American foods, as the Native Americans ate a mush made of softened corn or maize. In 1584, during their reconnaissance party of what is now Roanoke, North Carolina, Sir Walter Raleigh and his men met and dined with the local Indians. Having no language in common, the two groups quickly resorted to food and drink. One of Raleigh’s men, Arthur Barlowe, recorded notes on the foods of the Indians. He mad a special not of corn, which he found “very white, faire, and well tasted.” He also wrote about being served a boiled corn or hominy. When the colonists came ashore in Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607, the Indians offered them bowls of this boiled corn substance. The Indians called it “rockahomine,” which was later shortened to “hominy” by the colonists. The Indians taught the colonists how to thresh the hulls from dried yellow corn. Corn was a year-round staple and each tribe called it by a different name.

 

North Carolina Pig Pickin

 

 

Before the Civil War, pigs were a food staple in the South because they were a low-maintenance and convenient food source. The pigs could be put out to root in the forest and caught when the food supply became low. These semi-wild pigs were tougher and stringier than modern-day pigs. Pig slaughtering became a time for celebration, ant other families would be invited to share in the eating. Out of these gatherings grew the traditional southern barbecue. Plantation owners regularly held large barbecues for their slaves. According to historians, southerners ate, on average, five pounds of pork for every one pound of beef. In the 19th century, barbecues were an important feature of church functions and political rallies. Members of both political parties would come to the same gathering, with the leaders of each party competing with one another to supply the largest contribution of food and drink. Folks would gather from afar to reach the appointed place in time for the speeches, band concert, and all-important barbecue. The only accompaniments to the roast pig were thick slices of good bread, cucumbers (fresh and pickled), and whiskey. The saying “going whole hog” came out of these political rallies.

During the 20th century, barbecue joints or pits flourished (a typical joint or pit was a bare concrete floor covered by a corrugated tin roof and walls). Restaurants grew out of a simple barbecue pit where the owner sold barbecue to take away. Many were open only on weekends, since the “pit men” worked on farms during the week. As the century progressed, barbecue joints grew and prospered.

 

Mint Julep

 

This wonderful refreshing drink comes to us from Kentucky. It is always made with fresh mint, bourbon, and plenty of crushed or shaved ice. Traditionally Mint Julep is served at the Kentucky Derby and served in silver or pewter mugs.

 

 

Deep South Region

Boiled Peanuts  

 

 

Boiled peanuts are green or raw nuts that are boiled in salty water for hours outdoors over a fire. The shells turn soggy, and the peanuts take on a fresh, legume flavor. A green peanut is not green in color, just freshly harvested. It takes ninety to a hundred days to grow peanuts for boiling, and they are available only during May through November throughout the southern states. One of the drawbacks of boiled peanuts is that they have a very short shelf life unless refrigerated or frozen.

It is known that boiled peanuts have been a southern institution since at least the Civil War (1861-1865), when Union General William T. Sherman (1820-1891) led his troops on their march through Georgia. As a result of General Sherman’s campaign in Georgia, the Confederacy was split in two and deprived of much needed supplies. It was during the slave-trading years of the 17th and 18th centuries that the peanut was first brought to the southeastern United States, and for a long time it was assumed that the peanut had originated in Africa. However, peanuts actually originated in Brazil and Peru. Boiled peanuts are a traditional snack in South Carolina, North Carolina, Georgia, northern Florida, Alabama, and Mississippi, pronounced “bald peanuts” by diehard Southerners.

Collard Greens

 

 

Collard greens have been cooked and used for centuries. The Southern style of cooking of greens came with the arrival of African slaves to the southern colonies and the need to satisfy their hunger and provide food for their families. Though greens did not originate in Africa, the habit of eating greens that have been cooked down and reduced into gravy, and drinking the juices from the greens (known as “pot likker”) is of African origin. The slaves of the plantations were given the leftover food from the plantation kitchen. Some of this food consisted of the tops of turnips and other greens. Ham hocks and pig’s feet were also given to the slaves. Forced to create meals from these leftovers, they created the famous southern greens. The slave diet began to evolve and spread when slaves entered the plantation houses as cooks. Their African dishes, using the foods available in the region they lived in, began to evolve into present-day Southern cooking. Collard greens are vegetables that are members of the cabbage family, but are also close relatives to kale. Although they are available year-round they are at their best from January through April.

Fried Catfish

 

 

Fried catfish is considered a quintessential southern dish along with southern fried chicken, sweet tea, and hushpuppies. Once considered the “food of the Poor,” chefs around the country are now inventing new ways to cook and eat this fish. It is the most widely eaten American fish. Catfish can be used in any recipe calling for a non-oily white fish, but most southerners prefer it dredged in cornmeal and fried. In the South, hushpuppies are considered an absolute must to serve with fried catfish, along with coleslaw and ketchup. Catfish have skin that is similar to that of an eel, which is thick, slippery, and strong. All catfish should be skinned before cooking. The easiest method to skin a catfish is to nail the head of the dead fish to a board, hold on to its tail, and pull the skin off with pliers. Channel catfish are farmed in Mississippi, Louisiana, and Arkansas. Mississippi is the world’s leading producer of pong-raised catfish. Of all the catfish grown in the United States, 80 percent comes from Mississippi, where more than 102,000 acres are devoted to catfish farms.

Hushpuppies

 

 

An African cook in Atlanta is said to have given the name hushpuppy to this food. When frying a batch of catfish and croquettes, a nearby puppy began to howl. To keep the puppy quiet, she gave it a plateful of the croquettes and said, “Hush, puppy.” Since the name was cut, it stuck. Hushpuppies are finger-shaped dumplings of cornmeal that are deep-fried and traditionally served with fried catfish. Also know as corn dodgers, they are especially popular throughout the South.

Cuban Sandwich

No visit to Tampa or Miami would be complete without sampling the cities claim to fame – the Cuban sandwich. The Cuban sandwich, also known as the cubano, is a popular meal in south Florida where many Cubans have settled since the early 20th century. These tasty, toasted Cuban sandwiches are definitely Tampa and Miami, Florida’s favorite snack. These treats can be found in most restaurants in these cities, but the best places to buy them are from the street corner-snack bars, called loncherias. The most important part of a Cuban sandwich is the bread. It is not ordinary bread, but Cuban bread. Believers say that true Cuban bread cannot be found outside of Tampa or Miami. Cuban bread is noted for its split or bloom down the middle of its crust. This long, crusty loaf features a tender, but not chewy, interior.

South Central Region

 

Jambalaya

 

 

Jambalaya is a rice dish that is highly seasoned and strongly flavored with combinations of beef, pork, poultry, smoked sausage, ham, or seafood. It is a very adaptable dish often made from leftovers and ingredients on hand, and thus traditionally a meal for the Cajun rural folks rather than their wealthier town cousins, the Creoles.

It is thought that the word “jambalaya” comes from the French word “jambon” mean “ham,” the French words “a la,” meaning “with” or “in the manner of,” and the African word “ya,” meaning “rice.” Put the words together and they mean “ham with rice.” The dish is a takeoff from the Spanish paella and is also amazingly similar to the West African dish called jollof rice. Jambalaya is a one-pot dish – most cooks prefer to cook it in cast-iron pots.

Bananas Foster

In the 1950’s, New Orleans was the major port of entry for bananas shipped from Central and South America. In 1951, Owen Edward Brennan challenged his talented chef, Paul Blangé, to include bananas in a new culinary creation. Little did anyone realize that Bananas Foster would become an international favorite and is the most requested item on the restaurant’s menu. Thirty-five thousand pounds of bananas are flamed each year at Brennan’s in the preparation of its world-famous dessert.

Oyster Rockefeller

The dish was given the name Rockefeller because the green was the color of greenbacks and the whole dish was so rich that he wanted a name that would signify the “richest in the world.” The first name to come to his mind was John D. Rockefeller (1839-1937); a name once connoted the absolute pinnacle of wealth and position. No other American dish has received so much praise and attention as Oysters Rockefeller. The original recipe is a closely-guarded Antoine’s secret, though it has been imitated, adapted, and evolved in a host of ways. According to legend, it is said that a customer exclaimed with delight after eating this dish, “Why, this is as rich as Rockefeller!”

Pecan Pie

The French created the PECAN PIE after settling in New Orleans and being introduced to the pecan by the Natives. Pecans have their origins in prehistory. The earliest recorded writings on the pecan, by Cabeza de Vaca nearly 600 years ago chronicle that Native Americans planned their movements and activities around the maturity of the pecan, from the Indian name “pacane,” meaning “nut to be cracked with a rock.” The Native Americans concentrated in the river valleys in the fall to harvest pecans and depended on the pecan as their major food resource for about 4 months of the year. The first successful grafts of the pecan tree were done in 1846 by a Louisiana plantation gardener. The nut-bearing pecan tree of the walnut family is classified as a species of hickory native to North America. Pecan is distinguished from other hickories by its thin-shelled nuts with sweet kernels.

Crawfish Boil

Crawfish are descendants of the Maine lobster. The Story: After the Acadians (now called Cajuns) were exiled in the 1700s from Nova Scotia, the lobsters yearned for the Cajuns so much that they set off cross the country to find them. This journey, over land and sea, was so long and treacherous that the lobsters began to shrink in size. By the time they found the Cajuns in Louisiana, they had shrunk so much that they hardly looked like lobsters anymore. A great festival was held on their arrival, and this smaller lobster was renamed crawfish. Crawfish boils are wonderful messy affairs, best suited for the outdoors. Boiling crawfish is a festive event and eating it is thirsty work, so we made sure to have lots of beer on hand. Crawfish boil seasoning consists of a spice blend of salt, cayenne pepper, garlic powder, onion powder, lemon juice, and additional spices.

Turduckens

The November 2005 issue of National Geographic magazine traced the origins of the dish in the United States to Maurice, Louisiana, and “Hebert’s Specialty Meats”  Herbert’s has been making turduckens since 1985. Herbert’s now sells around 3,300 turduckens a year. They share a friendly rivalry with famous Cajun chef Paul Prudhomme who claims to have been the first to serve turducken. Turducken is a 15-16 pound de-boned turkey (except for wing bones and drumsticks), a fully hand de-boned duck, and a fully hand de-boned chicken, all rolled into one and stuffed with lots of delicious stuffing (Three kinds of stuffing are layered between the three kinds of meat). This regional delight has become one of the latest food fads. From the outside it looks like a turkey, but when you cut through it, you see a series of rings making up the three birds and stuffing.

 

Southwest Region

 

Guacamole

 

 

It is evident from miscellaneous reports by Spanish Conquistadores that, at the time of the Spanish conquest, avocados were grown from northern Mexico south through Central America into north-western South America and south in the Andean region as far as Peru (where the avocado had been introduced shortly before the conquest), as well as into the Andean region of Venezuela. The Aztecs (South American Indians) used the avocado as a sex stimulant and the Aztec name for avocado was ahuacatl, meaning “testicle. The Avocado’s strong presence has inspired chefs in the southwest to be very creative and come up with many new dishes like the one above.

Breakfast Burrito

Breakfast tacos or burritos are available at many restaurants across Texas and the Southwest. The breakfast taco is a fried tortilla that is rolled and stuffed with a mixture of seasoned meat, eggs, or cheese, and other ingredients such as onions and salsa. Much like sandwiches, these tacos can be as simple or complex as imagination allows. It is the plate and spoon at Mexican-American meals, used to layer and wrap other ingredients or to scoop up food. Corn tortillas were made long before European settlers introduced wheat flour to the New World. They were a traditional food among southwestern Indian tribes, created as a way to preserve their harvested corn kernels from one season to the next. According to a Mayan legend, a peasant of ancient times invented tortillas for his hungry king.

Chicken-Fried Steak

In Texas, the reigning queen of comfort food or down-home cooking is chicken-fried steak, or as Texans affectionately call, CFS. Every city, town, and village in Texas takes pride in their CFS. You might be surprised to learn that there is no chicken in Chicken-Fried Steak. It is tenderized round steak (a cheap and tough piece of beef) made like fried chicken with a milk gravy made from the drippings left in the pan. The traditional way to cook CFS is in a large cast-iron skillet with very little oil. Served with, “the works” means accompanied by mashed potatoes, gravy, greens, black-eye peas, and cornbread. Although not official, the dish is considered the state dish of Texas. The origin of the Chicken-Fried Steak probably comes from the German people who settled in Texas from 1844 to 1850. As Wiener Schnitzel is a popular German dish that is made from veal, and because veal was never popular in Texas and beef was, the German immigrants probably adapted their popular dish to use the tougher cuts of beef available to them.

Stacked Enchiladas w/Red Sauce

Enchiladas were a typical ranch house food early on, replicating the Mexican kitchen’s custom of almost always having food on the stove.  Even cooks today have something on the stove at almost all hours, whether it is beans, chili, estofado (stew), or something else, a good Hispanic cook can always feed the hungry. There may be as many ways to prepare enchiladas as there are ideas about where they originated it is not really known.

Fajitas

Texans would probably like to lay claim to the fajita, but history gives credit to Mexican ranch workers living in West Texas (along the Rio Grande on the Texas-Mexico border) in the late 1930s or early 1940s. When a steer was butchered, the workers were given the least desirable parts to eat for partial payment of their wages. Because of this, the workers learned to make good use of a tough cut of beef known as skirt steak. In Spanish, fajita is a form of the word faja which translates to “belt” or “girdle” in English.

The fajita is truly a Tex-Mex food (a blending of Texas cowboy and Mexican panchero foods). The Mexican term for grilled skirt steak is arracheras, and its American counterpart is fajitas.

Tamales

Tamale is a traditional Native South American food consisting of steam-cooked corn dough (masa) with or without a filling. Tamales can be filled with meats, cheese (post-colonial), and sliced chillis or any preparation according to taste. The tamale is generally wrapped in a corn husk or plantain leaves before cooking, depending on the region from which they come. Their essence is the corn meal dough made from hominy (called masa), or a masa mix such as Maseca, usually filled with a sweet or savory filling, wrapped in plant leaves or corn husks, and cooked, usually by steaming, until firm. Tamales were developed as a portable ration for use by war parties in the ancient Americas, and were as ubiquitous and varied as the sandwich is today. Numerous adaptations have been made on the basic tamale, including vegetarian tamales, chicken tamales, and even chocolate tamales. The basic tamale recipe which uses pork or beef, pork is probably the more traditional, but any recipe can use any sort of meat “stuffing” which has been marinated and cooked in a red Chile sauce.

Far West Region

Musubi

A favorite Hawaiian way to eat Spam is in the form of a musubi (pronounced moo-soo-bee, with no accent). It is a fried slice of spam on rice pressed together to form a small block, then wrapped with a strip of seaweed. A special kitchen gadget, known as the Spam Musubi Maker, is responsible for the proliferation of this treat. It is a special mold with the outline of a single Spam slice. The Spam musubi is eaten as a sandwich, and it is perhaps the Island’s favorite “to go” or snack food. Spam musubi is literally everywhere in Hawaii, including local convenience stores, grocery stores, school cafeterias, and even at the zoo.

Spam

Hawaiians have a love affair with Spam – they eat it as a delicacy, adding it to soups and stews, treating it as a side dish for breakfast, and enjoying it as the main event for lunch and dinner. The Hormel Company, in Austin, Minnesota, developed America’s first canned ham in 1926. After the hams were cut, the company was left with thousands of pounds of nearly worthless pork shoulder. During World War II, sales of Spam soared. In part because it requires no refrigeration, Spam was perfect for the military and became a standard K-ration for U.S. soldiers. Military personnel introduced it in Hawaii (Pearl Harbor) and elsewhere.

 

San Francisco Sour Dough French Bread

It all began in 1849 when members of the Boudin family arrived in the city that had been recently known as Yerba Buena, with a pre-Gold Rush population of approximately 1,000 residents.  The Boudins were for generations the master bakers in their hometown of Champigny-sur-Yonne in the Bourgogne region of France.  They knew how to take simple ingredients — just flour, water, and salt — and create the classic loaf of French bread:  soft and light in the center with a golden, crunchy crust.

But in order to bake bread in their new home, they had to create a levain, or “mother dough.”  Prior to the invention of packaged yeast, all bread was leavened with wild yeast, which bakers had to “catch” from the air and cultivate.  Each region has its own type of wild yeast, and each type imparts different qualities to the finished loaf of bread.  The Boudin family remained dedicated to their old-world techniques, but because they were baking with new-world yeast, San Francisco yeast, the results were very different.  The biggest surprise was the distinctive tangy flavor of the soft center.  It was an entirely new loaf of bread — it was San Francisco sourdough French bread.

California Roll

During the 1970s, a smart unknown California chef, realizing that many Americans did not like the though of eating raw fish, created the now famous California Roll, made with crab, avocado, and cucumbers. Since then, American sushi chefs have created many variations with unique names such as Spider Roll, Philadelphia Roll, and Rainbow roll. Most people in Japan have never heard of the California Roll, though, and I would advise not trying to order one there.

Caesar Salad

Most historians believe that Caesar salad honors restaurateur Caesar Cardini (1896-1956), who invented it in Tijuana, Mexico in 1924 on the Fourth of July weekend. It is said that on this busy weekend, Cardini was running low on food and he put together a salad for his guests from what was left over in the kitchen. His original recipe included romaine, garlic, croutons, and Parmesan cheese, boiled eggs, olive oil and Worcestershire sauce. The original salad was prepared at tableside. When the salad dressing was ready, the romaine leaves were coated with the dressing and placed stem side out, in a circle and served on a flat dinner plate, so that the salad could be eaten with the fingers.

In 1926, Alex Cardini joined his brother, Caesar, at the Tijuana restaurant. Alex, an ace pilot in the Italian Air Force during World War I, added other ingredients, one of which was anchovies, and named the salad Aviator’s Salad” in honor of the pilots from Rockwell Field Air Base in San Diego. It is reported that Alex’s version became very popular, and later this salad was renamed “Caesar Salad.” Caesar was said to be staunchly against the inclusion of anchovies in this mixture, contending that the Worcestershire sauce was what actually provided that faint fishy flavor.

Cobb Salad

The original recipe for Cobb salad included avocado, celery, tomato, chives, watercress, hard-boiled eggs, chicken, bacon, and Roquefort cheese. It was the invention of restaurant manager, Bob Cobb, at The Brown Derby restaurant in Los Angeles, found a way to use up leftovers. Cobb had been improvising with the salad for years. The first one was created at the end of a long day, when Cobb realized he had not had time to eat. Wandering over to one of the restaurant iceboxes, a weary Cobb scrounged around to see what he could fix. Cobb’s salad might have remained his own little secret had he not made an offhand comment about his new invention to one of Hollywood’s legendary promoters, Sid Grauman, the man responsible for the elaborate, pagoda-like cinema on Hollywood Boulevard that came to be known as Grauman’s Chinese Theatre. The salad got Grauman’s interest and he asked for one to try. He fell in love with it.

Pacific Northwest Region

Oregon Truffles

The mention of truffles brings up images of the expensive black and white truffles of France. But the truffles from Oregon are just as aromatic and less than one-tenth the price of their famous French counterparts. Oregon truffles are emerging as one of the world’s great delicacies, taking their richly-deserved place next to their legendary European cousins. Only in the past 20 years or so have several species of Oregon truffles become recognized for their culinary quality and potential value in the marketplace. In fact, with truffle production declining in Europe since 1900, Oregon’s relatively untapped supply is gaining more and more notice. Truffles are fungi, like mushrooms, but which grow under ground. Truffles also are the fruiting bodies of my corrhizal fungi that live in soil and associate with tree roots. But, instead of fruiting above ground, the truffle fruits below ground – and never sees the light of day (unless it is dug up). As a result, most people have never seen a truffle! Yet, truffles are common in the Pacific Northwest – especially in Douglas fir forests, as they grow in the needles and topsoil around the Douglas fir tree. Most of the harvest takes place on tree farms.

Alaskan Sourdough Pancakes

During the Klondike gold rush of 1898 when food was scare, food provisions were more valuable than gold. In extreme cold, miners would put the dough ball under their clothes, next to their skin, or tuck it into their bedroll with them at night, anything to keep it alive. Sourdough created by these Alaskans did not use eggs or milk. Resources like this were far too hard to come across when traveling in such a rugged environment. The only type of eggs that Pioneer Alaskans ever saw were “Chinese Eggs” or “Cold storage eggs,” and their strong flavor instantly dismissed the thought of using eggs to create their sourdough. Instead, a teaspoon of baking soda would be added to the batch of starter. Sourdough was a popular dish for the Yukons because of the high protein content in the fermented dough, so it became a valuable food source, worth more than gold or canned food. Pancakes were a good use of this dough, and are eaten this way mainly in today’s time.

Idaho Potatoes

 

It was not until the Russet Burbank potato was developed by American horticulturist Luther Burbank (1849-1926) in 1872 that the Idaho potato industry really took off. Burbank, while trying to improve the Irish potato, developed a hybrid that was more disease resistant. He introduced the Burbank potato to Ireland to help combat the blight epidemic. Today, the potato is so common and plentiful in the Western diet that it is taken for granted. We seem to forget that the potato has only been with us for a few hundred years.

Agutak Eskimo Ice-cream

The Native American Indian tribes of Alaska have a distinct version of ice cream. It’s not creamy ice cream as we know it, but a concoction made from reindeer fat or tallow, seal oil, freshly fallen snow or water, fresh berries, and sometimes ground fish. Air is whipped in by hand so that it slowly cools into foam. They call this Arctic treat akutaq or Eskimo ice cream. Akutaq is a Yupik word that means mix them together.

This is a delicacy that Alaska Natives have thrived on for thousands of years.  When hunters went out to hunt they brought along akutaq. Akutaq can also be made with moose meat and fat, caribou meat and fat, fish, seal oil, berries and other Alaskan ingredients.

Traditionally it was made for funerals, celebrations of a boy’s first hunt, or a couple’s union celebration. Akutaq is also used as a special traveling food. It is eaten as a dessert, a meal, a snack, or a spread.

Coffee

 

The Pacific Northwest is noted for its great coffee. In fact, Oregonians love and crave their coffee. An entire coffee culture has sprung up to answer this craving. Espresso stands and carts have sprung up in every major northwest city. You can find espresso or coffee places on street corners, in grocery stores, gas stations, hardware stores, department stores, stadiums, and even in the fast food outlets. There are even drive-through espresso stands for coffee drinkers who don’t have time to get out of their cars. It is more than just a trend; it is a new institution of the busy lifestyle. Coffee is the second largest commodity in the world. The boom of coffee houses is not new, as the roots of coffee houses go back to the 15th century Arabia, 16th century Europe, and 17th century North America. Coffee drinking began in the American colonies as early as 1689 in Boston, New York, and Philadelphia. In fact, the Green Dragon Coffee House of Boston was where the idea for the famous Boston Tea Party was conceived in 1773. Americans revolted against England’s tea tax, and the Continental Congress declared coffee the “Official National Beverage.” What better way to protest the unfair tea taxes imposed than to enjoy an alternate coffee beverage?

Salmon

Everyone throughout the United States knows salmon; but people living far inland or even along the Atlantic Coast do not know salmon as the people of the Pacific states know it. It is as if they are magical as they have accomplished and provided great things with their bodies. They are a saltwater fish which spawns in fresh water. The Columbia River and the Pugetsound country are especially noted for their fine salmon, and, of course, Alaska. To cooks, gourmets, and fishermen alike, the salmon is the king of the waters. The distinctive color of the flesh of a salmon is part of its attraction. It can vary from a very delicate pale pink to a much deeper shade, verging on red. In the Northwest, because of the various ethnic and cultural backgrounds, you can find salmon smoked hard in the Indian tradition and salmon smoked light in the Scottish tradition. It can also be as simple as a barbecued salmon dotted with butter and lemon. The Indian tribes of the Northwest look upon salmon with great reverence and have special rituals and legends for the yearly salmon run. The distances they travel and their astounding return to the exact point on earth where they emerged from their egg sacs is amazing. They will leap over any obstacle in their way, such as braving dams and waterfalls, hurling itself many feet out of the water until it surmounts the obstacle or dies of exhaustion in the attempt; there is no turning back. For some unknown reason, the female always dies after spawning.

Rocky Mountain Region

Rocky Mountain Oysters

Rocky Mountain oysters share this distinction with other questionable but edible animal by-products such as chicken gizzards, beef tripe and pork intestines, or chitlins. Rocky Mountain oysters are actually the testicles of bulls or sheep. They are usually sliced, breaded, deep-fried and served as appetizers in certain restaurants. Rocky Mountain oysters earned their name through association with the prevalent cattle industry in the Rocky Mountain region, as well as a passing resemblance to raw sea-based oysters. A number of cattle ranchers regularly removed the testicles of young bulls in order to discourage aggressive behavior. Meat packing plants also saved the testicles of older cattle for possible resale as a meat by-product. The first recorded preparation of Rocky Mountain oysters is clouded by history, but it seems likely that ranch cooks experimented with different meats to find inexpensive sources of food. When properly seasoned and breaded, Rocky Mountain oysters are said to have a neutral or slightly liver-like flavor, with a chewy texture similar to chicken gizzards

Bison Burger

Buffalo meat has a similar taste to good beef, though it is a slightly sweeter and a richer flavor. The good news is that bison offers us both less and more. It contains less cholesterol, less calories and less fat than either beef, pork or skinless chicken. In every category, bison contains more iron and more vitamin B-12 than either of those three. Less AND more – both are reasons to try the meat, whether it is called buffalo or bison. Additionally, bison require less food and far less water than cattle. Being less prone to disease than beef, they are not subject to the amount of antibiotics and hormones that cattle are given. They are sold in cuts similar to beef and can often be used interchangeably in a recipe.

Elk Summer Sausage

The elk, or wapiti, is the second largest species of deer in the world and one of the largest mammals in North America. Elk range in forest and forest-edge habitat, feeding on grasses, plants, leaves and bark. Although native to North America and eastern Asia, they have adapted well to countries where they have been introduced, including New Zealand and Argentina. Elk are hunted as a game species; the meat cut from the North American elk is lean and full of flavor. So, when choice cuts of elk are perfectly seasoned and cooked and smoked over fiery mesquite embers, the result is a lean, flavorful, nutritious summer sausage. These sausages come in a variety of different flavors.

Jerky

The word “jerky” itself comes from the Quechua term Charqui, which means “dried meat”, in Native American tongue. Drying has always been a common way to preserve meat. By drying thinly sliced meat in the sun and wind next to a smoky fire, the meat is protected from insects which would otherwise lay eggs in the raw meat. Ancient peoples—for example, the Inca—prepared jerky from the animals they hunted or raised.

Jerky is very popular even today in the Rocky Mountain region, sold almost everywhere.

Midwest Region

Kansas City BBQ Ribs

Kansas City barbecue refers to the specific inner city style of barbecue that evolved from the pit of Henry Perry in the early 1900s in Kansas City, Missouri. The Kansas City Metropolitan Area is renowned for barbecue. Kansas City, Missouri has more than 100 barbecue restaurants and proclaims itself to be the “world’s barbecue capital.” True to tradition, barbecue here is dry rub-spiced, slow roasted hour after hour over a pit of hickory, and slathered up all around with some of the smoothest, richest, sweetly tangiest sauces in all the world. Traditional Carolina barbecue sauce consists of a mix of peppers in a bottle of vinegar. Traditional Texas sauce takes a tomato base, thins it with Worcestershire and vinegar, and adds a lot more hot peppers.

But Kansas City “took the best of both worlds,” according to Rich Davis, by putting in Midwest tomatoes and coming up with “a sauce that doesn’t fall off the meat into the fire.” Like Chicago Kansas City was huge in the meat packing industry, which gave restaurateurs like, Henry Perry the product to use their amazing BBQ recipes on.

Gooey Butter Cake

This cake consists of a dry, flat base covered with a “goo” mixture. It is sticky and chewy and very delicious. This ultra-sweet treat is a St. Louis tradition and available in local bakeries all around the city of St. Louis. The Gooey Butter Cake originated in the 1930s. According to legend, a German baker added the wrong proportions of ingredients in the coffee cake batter he was making. It turned into a gooey, pudding-like filling. Johnny Hoffman of St. Louis Pastries Bakery was working on a Saturday and made what eventually turned out to be the greatest sweet mistake every to hit St. Louis.

Runza Sandwich

They are yeast dough (a bread pocket) with a filling of beef, cabbage or sauerkraut, onions, and seasonings. They are baked in various shapes like half-moon, rectangle, round, square, triangle, etc. The Official Nebraska Runza is always baked in a rectangular shape, and the Kansas, Bierocks are baked in the shape of a bun. If you travel in Nebraska, you will find eateries called “runza” – sometimes a place name, often the specialty of the house. Both the Bierock and the Runza sandwich have German-Russian roots going back to the 18th century. This unique recipe was passed down from one generation to the next; eventually finding it’s way to the Midwest of America and particularly to the states of Kansas and Nebraska (but with different names). Originally the Bierocks were served to the field workers for lunch. Today Bierocks are enjoyed any time and can be found at just about every church fund-raiser in the Kansas area.

Pemmican

Pemican, a true Native American dish, was a food preparation used in the wilds of the northern parts of North America, and made by cutting the meat of the reindeer into thin slices, drying the latter in the sun or over the smoke of a slow fire, pounding them fine between stones, and incorporating the material with one-third part of melted fat. To this mixture, dried fruit, such as choke or June berries, is sometimes added. The whole is then compressed into skin bags, in which, if kept dry, it may be preserved for four or five years. Sweet pemmican is a superior kind of pemmican in which the fat used is obtained from marrow by boiling broken bones in water.

Fried Ravioli

 

Many claims have been made as to the original creation of toasted ravioli in the United States, but the true origin of this dish remains unknown. Meanwhile, many chefs of the Italian neighborhood stake their claims. In 1947, a chef at Angelo’s accidentally dropped some freshly made ravioli in bread crumbs and decided to deep-fry it. Inspiration for the dish may have originated in Sicily, where fried ravioli containing a sweet filling is a traditional Christmas food. Toasted ravioli (also called fried ravioli) is an appetizer created and popularized in St. Louis, Missouri. Toasted ravioli can be found on the menus of many St. Louis restaurants including those of the “The Hill,” a predominantly Italian neighborhood.

Great Lakes Region

Chicago Style Pizza

Italians started coming to Chicago from Italy during the 1850s, by the 1940’s there was a significant Italian population of Italian immigrants and their descendants. Many had been successful in the restaurant and bar businesses. There are some stories about U.S. soldiers of Italian descent returning from Europe after World War II and experimenting with different pizza recipes, and eventually creating deep dish pizza. The only problem with these stories is that deep dish pizza was being sold in Chicago in the early 1940’s, before the end of the war. The one story that is probably true is about a man named Sewell (maybe originally from Texas) who created the deep dish pizza in 1943 at his bar and grill, Pizzeria Uno. It was so popular that he soon opened another place called Pizzeria Due. Soon other restaurants were serving deep dish pizza, including several opened by former employees of Sewell. (A former employee of Pizzeria Uno, Rudy Malnati claims to have created the original deep dish pizza too) Deep dish pizza became popular with more and more people, and soon Chicago became known for creating it. Everyone, not just Italians adopted it as a ‘Chicago’ food.

Walleye Sandwhich

Walleye’s delicate meat is white and flaky and no matter how it is prepared, it is delicious. One of the locals’ favorite ways to eat walleye is in a sandwich. A day of fishing would not be complete without a traditional shore lunch featuring freshly caught walleye from the icy waters. Thin fillets are breaded and either deep-fried, grilled, or pan-fried, and served in a fresh French loaf or on a hamburger bun with lettuce, tomato, and tartar sauce. The walleye sandwich is also a favorite at the many fishing lodges, pubs, and restaurants in the Great Lakes region. The walleye, a member of the perch family, is the most sought-after eating fish in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan. The walleye takes its name from its unusual marble-like eye, which appears transparent in certain light. Because of the eye structure, walleyes are extremely light sensitive. Their large eyes help them easily find their prey.

Anglers enjoy walleye year-round. During the day, these fish often rest on the bottom of the lake or hover in the shade of submerged objects or in the shadows of deep water.

 

Cincinnati Chili

Outside of the state of Texas, Cincinnati, Ohio, is the most chili-crazed city in the United States. Cincinnati prides itself on being a true chili capital, with more than 180 chili parlors. Cincinnati-style chili is quite different from its more familiar Texas cousin, and it has developed a cult-like popularity. What makes it different is the way the meat is cooked. The chili has a thinner consistency and is prepared with an unusual blend of spices that includes cinnamon, chocolate or cocoa, allspice, and Worcestershire.

The people of Cincinnati enjoy their chili spooned over freshly made pasta and topped with a combination of chopped onions, shredded Cheddar cheese, refried beans or kidney beans, and crushed oyster crackers. Macedonian immigrant Tom Kiradjieff created Cincinnati chili in 1922. With his brother, John, Kiradjieff opened a small Greek restaurant called the Empress. The restaurant did poorly however, until Kiradjieff started offering a chili made with Middle Eastern spices, which could be served in a variety of ways. He called it his “spaghetti chili.” Kiradjieff’s “five way” was a concoction of a mound of spaghetti toped with chili, chopped onion, kidney beans, and shredded yellow cheese, served with oyster crackers and a side order of hot dogs topped with more shredded cheese.

Lutefisk

Lutefisk (pronounced LEWD-uh-fisk) is dried cod that has been soaked in a lye solution for several days to rehydrate it. It is then boiled or baked and served with butter, salt, and pepper. The finished lutefisk usually is the consistency of Jell-O. It is also called lye fish, and in the United States, Norwegian-Americans traditionally serve it for Thanksgiving and Christmas. In many Norwegian homes, lutefisk takes the place of the Christmas turkey. In Minnesota and Wisconsin, you can find lutefisk in local food stores and even at some restaurants. The history of lutefisk dates back to the Vikings. Norwegian-Americans believe that lutefisk was brought by their ancestors on the ships when they came to America, and that it was all they had to eat. Today the fish is celebrated in ethnic and religious celebrations and is linked with hardship and courage.

CHAPTER 39: FOOD COST CONTROL

DEFINITION AND NATURE OF FOOD COST CONTROL

Cost control has been defined as the guidance and regulation of the costs of operating an undertaking. To guide and regulate costs means to ensure that they are in accordance with the pre determined objectives of the business. Hence the notion of the guidance and regulation of costs pre supposes the existence of stated objectives as expressed in the policy statements and the budgets of the undertaking.

Food cost control is simply cost control as applied to an undertaking operating food facilities. Food cost control is therefore cost control as applied in hotels, restaurants, canteens and similar establishments.

It is quite common in certain catering circles to regard food cost control as something wholly negative designed to cut costs in all directions. This is quite wrong. The object of food cost control is to ensure that costs are neither more or less than they ought to be that they are in line with the financial and catering policies of the establishment.

An important feature, which distinguishes food cost control from systems of cost control in other industries, is its materials costs orientation. In most aspects of food cost control, attention is directed to primarily to the cost of materials (cost of sales) leaving the cost of labor and other operating costs very much in the background. This is mainly due to the fact that in the short run, labor and other operating costs tend to remain fixed and are thus largely uncontrollable.

OBJECTIVES OF FOOD COST CONTROL

 

In many hotel and catering establishments, the expenditure on food is the largest single element of cost. The maintenance of Food cost at pre determined levels are therefore of the greatest importance in ensuring the satisfactory profitability of each establishment. Even where catering is undertaken as a welfare facility food cost targets and costs ceilings are invariably imposed from above either in total or on a per unit basis. The main objectives of food cost control may be summarized as follows:

1. Analysis of Income and Expenditure: In financial accounts, stress is usually placed on an ascertainment of total quantities e.g. sales, cost of sales, gross profit and net profit. In Food cost control on the other hand, much stress is placed on the analysis of such total quantities as between the various departments of the business. We are thus not satisfied with the ascertainment of the total gross profits of the business as a whole, but attempt to ascertain the cost of the profit on each department and each unit produced.

1. Pricing of Food and Quotations: Another major objective of food cost control is to provide a sound basis for menu pricing and quotations in respect of banquets and special parties. Whilst often, menu prices are fixed by caterers by reference to prices charged by competitors, the correct approach to the problem is to determine menu and other prices in the light of the main costs and market considerations. Thus in addition to a knowledge of prices charged by competitors, the customers spending power etc, it is necessary to take into account the costs of the establishment. This can only be done by installing a sound system of Food Cost Control.

1. Prevention of Waste and Inefficiencies: As already noted, the purpose of control is to ensure that current results are in accordance with the pre determined objectives of the business. Invariably, such objectives are expanded in terms of targets for turnover, cost ceilings and profit margins. Clearly, if such targets are to be reached, all possible forms of waste and inefficiencies must be prevented. In order to be effective in preventing waste and inefficiencies, a system of food cost control must cover the whole field of catering operations – from the purchase of the foodstuffs to the sale of the meals. It will be appreciated that as the catering process proceeds along the line along the line, linking the purchase of foodstuffs to the sale of the meals, there are numerous critical areas (e.g.: receipt of the incoming goods, preparation of meals and cash control) at which considerable losses may be incurred. An effective system of food cost control will therefore place particular stress on such critical areas of control and in this way help the establishment to reach its pre-determined targets.

1. Data for Management Reports: An important function to be fulfilled by the food cost control system is the provision of data for periodical reports on food operations. It is said that the manager is like a judge. His judgment is only as good as the information supplied to him. Effective catering management pre supposes adequate food cost reporting which can only be based on a sound system of control.

OBSTACLES TO FOOD COST CONTROL

In many respects food cost control is more difficult than systems of control in operation in other industries. The specific factors which make food cost control relatively more difficult are discussed here:

1. Unpredictability of the Volume of Business: Sales instability is inherent in almost all catering operations. The changes, which occur in the volume of catering, are of several kinds. Firstly, the intensity of demand for food and drink will in most cases vary during the day. As a result, in the majority of establishments, it is possible to observe more or less, peaks of activity during the workday. Secondly, there are changes in the volume of business occurring from one day to the next. ( Weekends). Finally, in catering establishments which are to some degree seasonal (resorts), turnover in season will be considerably greater than in the off season.

1. Perishability of Food: Food is perishable both as a raw material and in the form of prepared meals. This presents the catering businesses with two major problems. Firstly, when buying perishable foodstuffs it is necessary to ensure that while current supplies are adequate there is no over buying. This applies particularly to highly perishable items such as soft fruits, salads and certain vegetables. Secondly, the quantity of food prepared for each service should be in line with the anticipated demand (forecast). Extra food necessitates re heating and re processing before sale thereby incurring further operating costs. Over production also leads to wastage because most of the times, this excess is not suitable for resale thereby leading to spoilage and wastage.

1. Daily Variations in Food Production: In addition to changes in volume of sales there is continual change in the assortment of meals produced by catering units. The assortment of meals will change from one meal to another during the working day. Also, there are considerable changes of emphasis from one item on the menu to another. All shifts of emphasis entail considerable problems relating to all phases of the catering cycle and present many control problems relating to the purchase of the food stuff, preparations of the meals, pricing, cash collection etc. The nature of the products require considerably more control than is the case in many other industries.

1. Short Cycle of Operations: Another characteristic feature of catering establishments, which presents an acute control problem, is the short cycle of operations. Whilst in many other manufacturing units the time taken by the production process sometimes lasts weeks (from the time of purchase of raw materials to the sale of the finished product), in a catering operation the cycle is fairly short and lasts at the most a couple of days. Therefore there is little time to exercise control and remedial action if and when required. As a result, checks are done retrospectively. Hence a daily and at times weekly control check needs to be applied.

 

1. Multiplicity of Low Value Transactions: The spending power of customers will vary from one type of organization to another. Even when the customer spending power is high, the total amount spent by the customer consists of a number of small payments for the individual items comprising his meal. The turnover of the catering establishments is therefore the result of a number of low value transactions. This presents several control problems. Control tasks such as forecast of sales, stores, pricing and cash collection are therefore made more difficult.

1. High Degree of Departmentalization: Whereas some catering units have one selling outlet, there are many, which have several revenue producing units (e.g. Birdy’s, Croissant Etc.). This also applies to the large hotels, which have several F&B outlets including Banquet facilities and Bars. The larger the number of outlets, the greater the difficulties and the more arduous the problems of control. Whilst the analysis of total revenue presents some difficulties, these are magnified when the number of outlets increases. One of the problems of food cost control is to determine the results of each department (outlet), even though the production unit is the same.

 

METHODOLOGY OF FOOD COST CONTROL

We have defined Food Cost Control, described its objectives and dealt with the difficulties which its application presents. Now, we must deal with the method which should be applied in the development of a system of Food Cost Control.

The development of an effective system of Food Cost Control resolves itself into three distinct phases:

Phase I consists of basic policy decisions in relation to the financial and catering policies of the establishment.

Phase II consists of the necessary routine operation controls revolving around the catering cycle.

Phase III consists of what may be described as control after the event or post operational control.

Phase I  Basic Policy Decisions: In some respects, food cost control is a by-product of the interplay of two basic and sometimes conflicting considerations. When one reflects on what most forms of catering are about, the inevitable conclusion is that in the final analysis, only two things finally matter – profitability and the customer. The profitability of the establishment is the ultimate objective whereas the provision of a satisfactory standard of food and service is the means by which the ultimate objective is reached. Hence, before a system of cost control is developed, it is important to evolve the following:

1. A Financial Policy – setting out the intentions of the management with regard to the forecasted profitability. This involves setting up a profit target, the determination of departmental profit target and the planning of a whole pattern of differential profit margins in respect of each menu.

The financial policy of a catering establishment should be determined as in the five steps listed below:

1. Determine the overall profit target. (return on capital employed)
2. Determine what percentage of net profit on sales must be aimed at.
3. By reference to the budgeted volume of sales, the type of service and the degree of comfort to be provided to the customer. Determine what percentage of revenue will be required to cover labor costs and overheads, and what percentage of revenue can therefore be available to cover costs of sales.
4. By reference to the projected sales mix, determine the cost of sales for each department of the business: food, beverages, alcoholic drinks and tobacco.
5. Having determined the overall cost of sales for each department, plan the differential profit margin for each group of items offered on the menu, wine list etc.

2. A Catering Policy –  defining the market to be aimed at and describing how it is to be catered for

Phase II Operational Control : We have now outlined the first stage in Food Cost Control. The second stage consists of a sum total of built in checks (inspection of incoming goods for quality and quantity), technological procedures (yield testing) and clerical procedures (writing out requisitions). These should be planned so as to cover the whole cycle of catering operations. We must therefore deal with operational control in relation to

1. Buying/Purchasing
2. Receiving
3. Storing and Issuing
4. Preparation
5. Sales

Each of the above stages constitutes a highly critical stage of Food Cost Control. Any system installed must therefore cover all the five stages.

1. Buying – There are 4 main points to be considered at this stage. Firstly, there is yield testing. We have already evolved a catering policy, identified the type of customer, decided on the type of the menu and established a set of costs and gross profit targets. The object of yield testing is simply to discover the respective of yields of a whole range of commodities available for any one purpose and so determine the costs concerned. It is only on the basis of yield testing that we can compile the necessary purchase specifications. By the way, understand that there is a difference between yield testing and product testing. In product testing, we are mainly concerned with the physical properties of the food – texture, composition, keeping quality, flavor etc. In reality, tests are carried out which would combine the two objectives. Secondly, we have Purchase Specifications, which are concise descriptions of an item of food. This helps the caterer to communicate with the supplier. Varieties of tomatoes are available, some suitable for salads and some that may be used for soups and gravies. Similarly, brinjals are available for stuffing and others for Bhurta. A set of specifications by themselves will not be of much use. It is necessary to ensure that they are used – not only by the buying office but also by the goods receiving office. Thirdly, the methods of buying must be considered. It is clear that no single method of buying is suitable for all types of food. Hence, in relation to each type of commodity, we must decide whether it should be bought open market, via a tender or local purchase/imported. Finally, we must determine clerical procedures. It is necessary to decide who originates, sanctions and places purchase orders and what sort of documentary evidence is to be used. The use of the computer and material management packages is widespread and will help generate reports, which helps immensely with food cost control procedures.

1. Receiving – There seem to be three main points here. The first is quality control. Some person must be made responsible for checking the quality of all incoming goods, and it is obviously important to concentrate efforts in the direction of the perishable commodities. The quality of non-perishables tends to be constant over a period of time. Secondly, we must assign responsibility for the quantity inspection. The goods receiving clerk normally perform this task. Blind receiving is now quite a popular receiving technique especially in large-scale operations. Finally, the clerical procedures must be planned. How much paper work do we really want?  Do we keep a goods received book? What action should be taken in the event of non-delivery or short delivery? These questions need to be answered and the policies framed. Today, the computer helps to eliminate a lot of paper work. But, is the organization financially equipped to install computers? Do they possess the personnel to operate the software??

1. Storing and Issuing – Several important matters must be planned for the third stage of the cycle. First, there is the problem of stock records. It is necessary to decide whether or not these will be kept at all and also for how long! Secondly, the matter of pricing of issues must be decided upon. In other words, we must choose one or more of the following for computing the cost of food consumed:

–         Actual purchase price

–         Simple average price

–         Weighted average price

–         Inflated price

–         Standard price

Thirdly, stocktaking must be considered. Decisions must be made with regard to its frequency, the pricing of stocks, methods with dealing with discrepancies etc. Finally, the necessary clerical procedures must be established and introduced. Who writes the requisitions? How many copies?

Who will sanction?  These are some of the questions that must be answered.

1. Preparing – This is possibly the most critical stage of the cycle. The cost of food consumed depends on two factors: the number of meals produced and the food cost per meal. In order therefore to control food costs we must be able to control the numbers being catered for (we must have some method of volume forecasting) and control the food cost per meal in advance (standard recipes and portion control). Volume forecasting is a method of predicting the sales volume for a future period. In order to be of practical value, the forecast must predict the total number of covers as well as the choice of menu items. The process of volume forecasting consists of two stages: First, we have what we know as the initial forecast. This is done once a week in respect of each day of the following week. The initial forecast is based on sales histories, data relating to advance bookings as well as current trends. When the initial forecast has been completed, the predicted sales are converted into quantities of raw material. Purchase orders can then be prepared and sent out to the suppliers. The second stage is known as the final forecast. And this usually takes place a day before. The final forecast takes into account the latest developments including weather etc. If required, supplier’s orders can be amended. It must be understood that volume forecasting is not a perfect method of prediction. We cannot really tell the future.  It does however help to minimize over and under production of food.

1. Selling – At this last stage of the catering cycle, we are concerned with three main problems. The financial and catering policies will have defined the price policy of the business. In operational food cost control, we are therefore only concerned with the routine pricing of food. Where differential profit margins have been evolved, this is a relatively simple matter. A more important tactical task that has to be faced is to ensure that any increase in the quantity of food prepared is matched by a corresponding increase in cash received from the customer. This will require a restaurant checking system. The final problem is of cash control. We must ensure that all amounts received by the waiting staff are paid to the cashier. He in turn has to deposit each day’s takings.

 

 

Phase III – Control after the Event

The last phase of Cost Control is concerned with three important matters:

1. Food Cost reporting
2. Assessment of Results
3. Corrective Action where appropriate and necessary

The first point is obviously a matter of some importance mainly for reasons of the specific character of catering operations. Food is a highly perishable commodity and whether in the form of cooked meals or raw materials, it cannot be stored indefinitely. Moreover, the demand for catering facilities shows unpredictable trends and unexpected changes. The cycle of production is extremely short, unlike other manufacturing operations such as automobiles for example. All this means that current operations must be reviewed frequently and that there is a need for a short review period. In order to control a food operation effectively, the manager must have daily, weekly and other reports covering longer periods.

The second important aspect of food cost reporting is concerned with analysis. A catering business, unlike most other businesses performs a dual function: production and selling. Furthermore, many catering establishments are highly departmentalized, especially large hotels and industrial canteens. The assortment of production (large menus) changes from day to day. All these factors mean that from the point of vies of control; analytical reports showing separate results for each branch of the catering operation are necessary. The assessment of results is concerned with an appreciation of how far the actual results of food operations correspond with the actual results. This means that assessment is not possible without a yardstick for measurement. We could assess current results in relation to those of previous food cost review periods or we could assess current actual results in relation to budgeted results. Obviously, the second is the preferred one.

This brings us to the last stage: corrective action. Surely, any action that is taken following receipt of a food cost report depends on circumstances and reasons of each case. Therefore, it is difficult to lay down specific guidelines for corrective action and it here that the manager’s tact and experiences as well as his feel for the job come into play. Questions of praise, reprimand, authority and responsibility are very largely a matter of human relations.

 

 

 

 

SUNIL KUMAR

vfc:fpp: 3.32

SIHM ROHTAK

 

CHAPTER 40: FOOD AND BEVERAGE STANDARDS

Developing standards (levels of expected performance) is part of the process of controlling food and beverage costs. The usefulness of control information can be increased by establishing standards for each revenue center within the Food and Beverage operation. For example, instead of computing a standard food cost that covers all outlets, a hotel might establish separate standards cost levels for its coffee shop, fine dining restaurant and banquet facility. The advantage of this alternative is that each outlet may be evaluated separately and problem areas easily identified, based on its own set of anticipated costs.

As a standard becomes more specific, more time is required to develop and monitor it. The longer the time needed to collect information on which to base the standard (and measure the actual results), the less likelihood that practical managers will take the time to do it. In addition, the more complex the development of standard costs becomes, the more likely the task will be met with resistance by those who must collect the information.

Therefore, an ideal control system must strike a balance between the time and effort spent developing it and the usefulness of the results the system provides. The principles for establishing standards are the same regardless of whether the property is commercial or institutional, small or large, fast food or fine dining, hotel or restaurant. Systems for developing food and beverage standards must begin with the menu. It establishes which food and beverage items it will serve. The menu is the most basic and important control tool. Once the menu is created, five standard cost tools can be developed:

1. Standard Purchase Specifications
2. Standard Recipes
3. Standard Yields
4. Standard Portion Sizes
5. Standard Portion Costs

STANDARD PURCHASE SPECIFICATIONS

A purchase specification is a concise description of the quality, size, weight, count and other factors needed to describe a desired item. The specified factors should be described in sufficient detail to properly guide the company’s supplier and receiving personnel in the delivery and receipt of the products. Management should establish standard purchase specification based on menu requirements and operations merchandising and pricing policies. Once developed, standard specifications should be given to those responsible for purchasing, as well as to the suppliers and this way all those involved in the purchase cycle are made aware of the required standard of quality desired. Besides making clear what is required to all concerned,  SPS also has other advantages.

1. Fewer products may be required. Two different sizes of shrimp could eliminated and one standard size used for a shrimp salad and a shrimp curry.
2. Reduced purchase costs may be possible. Purchase specification based on the needs of the menu will keep the company from purchasing  higher quality products than it needs for its purposes.  Firm, Red, Ripe tomatoes are good for a salad but a cheaper variety of probably slightly texture would be good enough for a soup or a tomato based Indian gravy.
3. If purchase specifications are clearly mentioned, more than one supplier will quote for the order making the business more competitive.

The development and use of standard purchase specifications involves time and effort. However, considering the many advantages that purchase specifications offer relative to the few disadvantages, they are clearly a critical standard cost control tool. Carefully developed and rigidly enforced specifications help the operation ensure that the right quality product is consistently available for production and service. Remember, however, that standard purchase specifications call for effective receiving and control procedures to be effective.

STANDARD RECIPES

A standard recipe is a formula for producing a food or beverage item. It provides a summary of the ingredients, the required quantity of each, specific preparations, procedures, portion sizes (and portioning equipment – like teaspoon/ladle/scoop)  and any other information required to prepare the item. The advantage of standard recipes is that regardless of who prepares the item, or when it is prepared, the  product will always look, cost and taste the same. The consistency in operations provided by the standard recipe is at the heart of all control systems.

There are several other reasons to  use standard recipes in addition to the advantages of consistency in appearance, cost and taste.

1. When you know that the standard recipe will yield and certain number of portions, it is less likely that too few or too many portions will be produced. You can estimate the number of portions required and adjust the standard recipe to yield the number of portions required.
2. Since standard recipes indicate needed equipment and required production times, managers/chefs can more effectively schedule food production employees and necessary equipment.
3. Less supervision is required since the standard recipe will tell the employee the quantity and procedure for each item. Guess work is eliminated. Of course, the chef /manager should routinely and randomly evaluate the quality of the item produced and take corrective action if necessary.
4. If a particular chef/cook is ill or has not reported to work for whatever reason, a product of appropriate quality can be produced if a standard recipe is available. Granted, inexperienced employees will be slow and may commit mistakes, but if the recipe resides only in the head of the absent employee, instead of on a standard recipe chart, the chef will be in an even more awkward position.

Using a standard recipe does not require that the recipe be physically in the work area during production time. A standard recipe must always be followed and must always be available, but it does not always need to be read before preparation. Sometime, a picture or photograph on display will do.

STANDARD YIELDS

The term yield means the net weight or volume of a food item after it has been processed and made ready for sale to the guest. The difference between the raw or As purchased (AP) weight and the prepared or edible portion (EP) weight is termed a production loss. For example, if a 2.5kg fillet of beef is purchased and, after trimming and braising, 2 kg remain, there is a production loss of 500 gm.

In general, there are three steps in the production process. The first is pre preparation, which includes processes like trimming of meat, filleting of fish, peeling of vegetables. The second step is preparation (or cooking). The third step is holding and could include portioning (including carving a large joint of meat). A loss can occur in any one of these steps.

A standard yield results when an item is produced according to established standard production procedures outlined in the standard recipe. It serves as the base against which to compare actual yields. For example, if the standard purchase specifications are adhered to, and a meat item is properly trimmed, cooked and portioned, the actual yield should be closely approximate to the standard yield.

Determining Standard Yield

Standard yields are determined by conducting a yield test. Ideally, everything that does not have a 100% yield should be tested. Yield testing could also be carried out  to find out trimming losses especially for vegetables. Normally, yield tests are carried out on high cost products and low cost products that are used in large volumes (potatoes)

The yield from a product depends on several factors, including the grade, original weight and pre preparation and cooking methods. Therefore it is advisable to compare products and yields from different suppliers. The yield test is often referred to a Butchers Test as this was originally applied to meat produce.

 

 

 

Cost per Servable KG

After trimming and cooking loss is calculated and the edible (servable) portion weight is determined.,  a cost per servable KG (or gm or pound)  can be determined. To find the cost per servable KG, first establish the yield percentage. The yield percentage is also called the yield factor. This is the ratio of servable to original weight.

Servable weight

——————–     x  100 = ratio of servable weight to original weight

Original weight

The cost per servable KG is found by dividing the AP price by the yield %

AP Price

—————— = cost per servable KG

Yield %

The cost per servable Kg is the information needed to calculate standard portion costs.

One can make a similar calculation to determine the total AP quantity needed once the yield % is known.

Quantity needed x edible portion

—————————————   -=  quantity to purchase/prepare

Yield %

The Cost Factor

 

The cost factor is a constant value thatmay be used  to convert new AP price into a revised cost when purchase prices change. The cost factor assumes that purchase specifications, recipes and yield remain the same.

Cost per servable KG

————————       =      cost factor

AP Price

 

 

Adjusting Standard Recipe Yields

 

The yield from a standard recipe can easily be increased or decreased by using an adjustment factor. This is found by dividing the desired yoeld by the original yield. For example, if a recipe yields 100 portions and you want 225 portions of the same size the adjustment factor would be

Desired yield                                                        225 portions

—————       =   adjustment factor                   —————    =   2.25

Original yield                                                       100 portions

Using the adjustment factor can provide very accurate ingredient quantities when the total volume of a recipe’s yield does not change significantly. However, the use of the adjustment factor for a recipe in which the yield changes substantially must be done carefully. It is unlikely that a recipe yielding 10 portions od a specific size can be merely multiplied by the adjustment factor of 100 to yield 1000 portions of the same size. In such cases, it is best to start with the adjustment factor and then modify it carefully until the recipe yields the desired volume..

 

 

STANDARD PORTION SIZES

 

Every recipe must indicate a standard portion size. This is the fourth standard cost control tool for ensuring standard in consistency in operations. Because a menu item will be the same size each time it is portioned, no guest will get a larger or smaller portion when he orders the item. The benefit is two fold: portion cost for the same food or beverage item will remain consistent, and the guest will always receive the same value for the money they spend.

Value is the relationship between price and quality. Basing the selling price of the food or beverage item, at least in part, on its product cost will help to establish a fair selling price or value from the guests perspective. Of course, other factors will also be involved ( overheads, labor). On one occasion, a guest may receive a large portion – which he considers  great value. When he returns a second time later, he receives a smaller portion  for the same price. – a lesser value and a greater disappointment. Consistency, in terms of value perceived by guests, is a primary advantage of standard portion sizes.

Portion Control Tools must be available and used every time a recipe is prepared. These include getting ingredients weighed and measured. Use ladles/ scoops/spoons to get the correct quantity. For beverages, there are shot glasses, jiggers and automated beverage-dispensing equipment.  Employees must know about portion sizes if they are expected to follow them. Required portions sizes required from  a food item must be posted in the production area of the kitchen.  In addition, some operations use pictures of each item. The employee can see how the item should look and how it is to be placed on the plate.

STANDARD PORTION COSTS

After standard recipes and standard portion sizes have been developed, a standard portion cost can be  calculated. A standard portion cost is the cost of preparing and serving one portion of food according to the standard recipe. Today, many food service operators use computerized pre costing equipment to keep the per-portion costs of the standard recipe current.. For example, if the cost of the Beef Fillet increases, the new cost is entered into the system and all dishes using Beef Fillet will automatically be updated with the new cost. A change in the portion size will also affect the standard portion cost. Anytime the portion size is changed, a new standard portion cot must be calculated.

SUNIL KUMAR

SIHM ROHTAK

 

CHAPTER 41:  YIELD

Yield is defined as the edible usable part of a food item / raw material, which is available after preparation / pre preparation and cooking.

A standard yield is the yield obtained when an item is processed as per the particular standard methods of preparation, cooking and portioning of an establishment.

OBJECTIVES

• To establish a standard for the quantity and number of portions obtainable from a specific item of food.
• To establish a standard for comparison with operating results and thereby measure the efficiency of the production departments.
• To establish an objective method of further evaluating standard purchasing specifications.
• To establish a standard cost factor for the item of food.
• To assist in menu costing and pricing.
• To assist in converting forecast requirements into raw material requirements.

IMPORTANCE OF YIELD

 

Yield testing and yield factors are important for ant establishment for the following functions:

• To determine product pricing.
• To set purchase specifications and receiving standards.
• To forecast purchase quantity and ordering levels.
• Establishing standard recipes and portion size.
• For setting control standards.
• Comparison of vendor prices and quality.
• Monitoring the usage of raw materials.

YIELD PERCENTAGE / FACTOR:

 

Yield percentage or yield factor is defined as the percentage of the whole purchase unit of an item that is available for portioning after any required processing has been completed. This percentage or factor is calculated by dividing the portionable weight by original weight of the item before processing.

Yield percentage = number of portions x unit portion size x 100

                                  Purchase quantity

YIELD TEST

 

A yield test is performed on each item with respect to the product that needs to be made from that item. For example – an yield test may be done for pineapples for pineapple juice and for slices separately.Yield testing is a very time consuming but an important process as it helps the establishment to set its own standard yields for each of the item purchased. This helps to decide whom to purchase from, determine accurately what output each item gives and set standards for purchase for each item.

Yield testing is defined as a technique to determine the number of portions produced after the required processing has been performed. These processes may include trimming, butchering, cutting, cooking or some combination of these. During these processes fat, bone and other inedible or unnecessary parts are removed. Also in some cases (roasts, for example) fat is removed by melting during cooking process.

All these processes result in weight loss and thus the quantity available for portioning / serving weighs less than the quantity originally purchased. For effective yield testing, it is important to weigh the item after each set of process is completed. The two important parts of yield testing are –

BUTCHER’S TEST

 

The butcher’s test, as the name states is mainly done for meats, fish and poultry purchased as wholesale cuts. It is used to determine the standard yield and portion cost for those items portioned before cooking. Also the butcher test is done to establish the rational value for primary part of the wholesale piece.

For example, if a particular cut of beef is approx. half fat and usable meat, the two parts have clearly different uses and values even though they were purchased at the same price. Only on conducting the butchers test the real value of the usable part is known.

Process of butcher’s test

 

Butcher’s test is conducted under the supervision of the chef and food controller. The butcher will cut the item down into respective parts and start to process them as per the standard portion sizes. All the parts, usable and non usable are weighed and noted. The total weight of all parts must be approx. equal to the weight of the whole. The   difference if any is noted down as a loss in cutting.Thus, the yield or standard portion size available from an item after butchering is determined.Butcher’s test must be conducted regularly on a reasonable no. of pieces so as to get a more accurate yield of each item depending on what it is going to be used for. Generally, it is better to have test results on a number of different pieces in order to arrive at averages.

Butcher’s test is also conducted to monitor the extent to which any one dealer is adhering to specifications. With the help of butcher’s test results, menu prices can be planned because costs are known.

The butcher’s test is also valuable to compare the cost of a pre portioned item purchased from the vendor as against the cost of the same item processed in the establishment (keeping in account the labor cost).

COOKING LOSS TEST

No yield testing is complete without determining the weight of the item that is available for serving or otherwise called the salable weight. Many items are portioned after cooking. Also there is a considerable amount of weight loss during cooking in terms of loss of moisture and fat. Thus the primary purpose of cooking loss test is to determine the standard final yield and thus determine the standard portion size and cost. When conducting the cooking loss test, it is important to note down the weight of the item available before cooking, i.e., after all the trimming, cutting and removing of fat (if any). Then the item is cooked as per the standard procedure and the weight of the item is noted down. If the standard recipe requires the bone and cooked fat to be removed then the item is again weighed after final portioning is done and this is recorded as salable weight. This salable weight is also called the final yield or the portion size / weight of the item.

The final yield factor is obtained by dividing this weight by the original total weight of the item purchased. These ratios obtained during the process of yield testing helps to determine which of the several available grades of commodities would yield maximum salable weight of the desired quality. Also, cooking loss tests may be used to compare the results of cooking several pieces at different temperature or for different lengths of time or in different methods so as to maximize the yield keeping the quality standards in consideration.

Once the weight and the value of the salable portion is known, the standard portion size, the prize and the cost can be determine and the standard can be established.

Factors that are involved in yield testing –

 

1. Purchase weight – the weight of the raw material as purchased to a known standard and as per specifications.
2. Usable weight – that weight of the item that is available for cooking or further processing after all the unusable and inedible parts are removed. Mainly applies to meat, fish, and poultry and in some cases to fruits and vegetables.
3. Cooked weight – weight of the item after it has been cooked as per standard procedure.
4. Saleable weight – the unit weight / quantity which is served.

 

 

SUNIL KUMAR

SIHM ROHTAK

 

THIRD YEAR SYLLABUS

A CULINARY HISTORY

SEASONING AND FLAVORING

MODERN PLATE PRESENTATION

FOOD SANITION AND KITCHEN SAFETY

I   GARDE MANGER

 

–         DEFINITION AND INTRODUCTION TO THE LARDER

–         ESSENTIALS OF THE LARDER

–         DEPARTMENTS/SECTIONS  OF THE LARDER

–         DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE LARDER CHEF

–         LARDER EQUIPMENT

–         LARDER CONTROL

–         LARDER AND OTHER DEPARTMENTS

–         LARDER TERMINOLOGY

–         APPETIZERS AND HORS D’OEUVRES

–         ZAKUSKI AND CANAPES

–         SANDWICHES

–         NON EDIBLE DISPLAYS

II CHARCUTERIE

–         INTRODUCTION TO CHARCUTERIE

–         FORCEMEATS

–         PATE  TERRINE AND PARFAIT

–         FOIE GRAS AND TRUFFLE

–         SAUSAGES

–         GALANTINE BALLOTINE AND ROULADE

–         MOUSSE  MOUSSELINE AND QUENNELLE

–         ASPIC AND GELEE

–         CHAUD FROID

–         MARINADES CURES AND BRINES

III   BAKERY AND CONFECTIONERY

–         HISTORY OF BREAD

–         BREAD – INGREDIENTS, THEIR ROLE AND STEPS IN BREAD MAKING

–         BREAD FAULTS

–         BREAD IMPROVERS

–         FROZEN DESSERTS

Custards and Creams

Ice creams and Sorbets

Souffles and Mousses

–      CAKE MIXING AND BAKING

–      PASTRY

–         COOKIES AND BISCUITS

–         CHOCOLATE – TYPES, TEMPERING, GANACHE AND TRUFFLE

–         BAKERY TERMINOLOGY

–         BAKERY QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

IV     INTERNATIONAL CUISINE

 

FRANCE                         GREAT BRITAIN

SPAIN                             PORTUGAL

ITALY                             CHINA

THAILAND                    MEXICO